f ;  :; 


THE  LIBRARY 
OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


SOUTHERN  BRANCH, 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 

LIBRARY, 

LOS  ANGELES,  CALIF. 


lkellOGg'6  |PcJ)agoGtca[  Ulbrar?. 


THE  COMMON-SCHOOL  SYSTEM 
OF  GERMANY 


AND  ITS 


LESSONS   TO  AMERICA. 


45582 


BY 

LEVI  SEELEY,  Ph.D., 

author  of  "  the  american  public-school  system  and  its  needs 

from  the  german  standpoint,"  "  the  grube  method," 

"  the  grube  idea  ";  one  of  the  translators  of 

mnge's  "  apperception";  etc. 


NEW  YORK  AND  CHICAGO: 

E.   L   KELLOGG  &  CO: 
1896. 


"  The  ultimate  end  of  education  is  so  to  develop  and  perfect  all  the 
powers  of  man  as  to  reach  thereby  the  highest  morality  attainable." 

NiBMRYBR. 


.        .Copyright  i§9fv<iy .«. 

B.*.LvKfetL06a-  ^.  .CDi, :  '. / '-. ' 

NEW  YORK. 


Library. 

UA 


PREFACE. 

The  object  of  this  book  is  twofold :  first,  to  give  an  ac- 
curate picture  of  the  German  school  system,  especially 
that  of  Prussia,  which  was  foremost  in  establishing  a 
school  system  thorough  in  all  respects;  and  second,  to  draw 
lessons  from  the  same  which  can  be  applied  in  the  Ameri- 
can schools  and  for  the  improvement  of  her  school  systems. 
In  order  to  obtain  reliable  information  concerning  the 
German  schools  it  became  necessary  to  examine  a  vast 
literature,  as  there  is  no  single  book  in  German  giving  a 
complete  picture  of  the  school  system,  and  this  would  still 
leave  many  questions  unsettled  to  the  foreign  student. 
Therefore  it  became  necessary  to  study  the  subject  on  the 
ground  where  answers  and  explanations  could  be  obtained 
from  school  officials  and  teachers.  This  study  began 
twelve  years  ago,  and  four  of  these  years  have  been  spent 
in  Germany.  Access  to  the  public  libraries,  and  also  to 
the  private  libraries  of  school  men,  together  with  the  ad- 
vice and  assistance  of  many  eminent  teachers,  have  been  of 
utmost  value  to  me  in  securing  correct  data  and  in  reaching 
absolute  facts. 

Not  less  important  was  the  actual  inspection  of  schools, 
aud  this  has  been  made  in  all  parts  of  Germany;  institu- 
tions of  all  kinds  have  been  visited,  from  the  school  in  the 
lonely  village,  where  perhaps  a  single  teacher  instructs  a 

m 


iv  Preface. 

hundred  children,  to  the  most  complete  school  system  of 
the  largest  city,  and  from  the  common  school  to  the  gym- 
nasium and  university.  Uniform  courtesy  has  ever  been 
shown,  and  the  school  ofl&cials  and  teachers  have  never 
failed  to  give  me  an  opportunity  not  only  to  see  actual 
work,  but  also  to  obtain  correct  information  concerning 
the  schools. 

In  regard  to  the  second  motive,  that  of  suggesting  re- 
forms in  the  American  schools,  I  trust  no  one  will  think 
that  I  believe  in  bodily  transporting  the  German  school 
system  to  American  soil.  There  are  certain  reforms  needed, 
and  the  sooner  we  recognize  the  fact  and  set  about  their 
introduction,  the  better  for  our  schools  and  for  the  cause 
of  education.  We  should  be  ready  to  learn  from  any  and 
every  source ;  and  if  Germany  has  anything  good  that  we 
can  apply,  prejudice  should  not  prevent  its  application. 
That  Germany  has  some  good  things  entirely  applicable  to 
our  conditions,  I  believe  these  pages  will  show.  The  ob- 
ject is  not  to  improve  the  German  schools,  therefore  their 
defects — and  they  have  serious  defects — will  not  be  given 
prominence. 

I  do  not  expect  that  all  American  educators  will  agree 
with  me  in  the  manner  of  applying  the  lessons  from  Ger- 
many, nor  in  the  manner  of  securing  the  reforms,  though 
all  will  agree  that  such  reforms  are  necessary.  Experience 
in  schools  of  all  kinds  in  America  leads  me  to  believe  that 
my  plan  is  practicable.  But  if  these  suggestions  shall 
awaken  discussion  and  criticism,  and  thereby  lead  some- 
body else  to  propose  a  better  plan  which  may  be  adopted, 
my  end  will  be  reached.  The  main  end  is  the  reforms 
sought,  and  if  that  end  is  reached  I  shall  bo  satisfied. 

I  wish  hereby  to  express  my  appreciatioji  of  most  valu- 
able assistance  from  the  following  gentlemen:  Dr.  Bosse, 
Minister  of  Education ;  Ilerr  von  Weyrauch,  under-Secre- 
tary  of  State;  Geheimrat  Prof.  Bertram,   superintendent 


Preface.  ▼ 

of  the  common  schools  of  Berlin;  Rektors  Bablich,  Lincke, 
Brunslow,  Schmidt,  and  Bellardi,  principals  of  Berlin 
schools;  and  especially  from  Herr  Robert  Siegert,  instruc- 
tor of  drawing  in  the  Royal  Art  School,  Berlin.  Believing 
that  we  have  most  to  learn  from  the  common  schools  of 
Germany,  the  discussion  is  limited  to  them. 

Levi  Seeley. 
State  Normal  School, 

Trenton,  N.  J.,  Jan.,  1896. 


OTHER  TEACHERS'  BOOKS 

BY 

Dr.  LEVI  SEELEY. 

Gnibe  Method  of  Teaching  Arith- 
metic  $1.00 

Grube  Idea  in  Primary  Arithmetic,        .30 


KELLOGG'S 

PEDAGOGICAL  LIBRARY. 

Vol.      I.— Parker's  Talks  on  Peda- 
gogics,     .  .         $1.50 

Vol.     II. — Seeley's  Common-School 

System  of  Germany,  1.50 

Vol.  III.— Parker's  Talks  on  Teach- 
ing   1. 00 

Other  numbers  in  preparation. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  Introduction 9 

11.  Early  History 13 

III.  Beginnings  of  School  Systems 20 

IV.  Development  of  the  Volksschule 26 

V.  The  Volksschule  under  Frederick  the  Great 33 

VI,  Development  since  the  time  of  Frederick  the  Great. . .  40 

VII.  Administration  of  the  Schools 47 

VIII.  The  Provincial  School  Authority 52 

IX.  The  Governments 55 

X.  The  District 58 

XI.  The  Local  Board 62 

XII.  Compulsory  Education 70 

XIII.  TheCommon  School 77 

XIV.  The  Course  of  Study 91 

XV.  Method  of  Instruction 104 

XVI.  Application Ill 

XVII.  Religion  in  the  Schools 117 

XVIII.  School  Buildings 128 

XIX.  Support  of  the  Schools 134 

XX.  The  Training  of  Teachers — Preparatory  Schools 138 

XXI.  Teachers' Seminaries 142 

XXII.  Course  of  Study  in  Teachers'  Seminaries 147 

XXIII.  The  Examination  of  Teachers 157 

XXIV.  The  Teachers 163 

XXV.  The  Appointment  of  Teachers 169 

XXVI.  Salaries  of  Teachers. 172 

XXVII.  The  Training  of  Teachers  in  America 181 

XXVIII.  Appointment  and  Support  of  Teachers  in  America. . .  188 

XXIX.  Pensions 195 

XXX.  Pensions  for  American  Teachers 200 

XXXI.  Other  Kinds  of  Schools 206 

XXXII.  The  Education  of  Girls 212 

XXXIII.  Fortbildung  Schools 220 

XXXIV.  The  Kindergarten 225 

XXXV.  Institutions  for  the  Unfortunates , 232 

XXXVI.  General  Statistics 234 

XXXVII.  Other  German  States 239 


vii 


SCHOOL  SYSTEMS  OF  GEEMANY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  German  common  schools  have  long  been  celebrated 
for  their  efficiency  and  thoroughness.     They  have  steadily 
improved  from  the  time  of  their  organization  until  the 
present,  and  although  other  nations  have  also  improved 
their  school  systems,  Germany,  it  is  conceded,  still  continues 
in  the  lead.     The  three  most  important  lessons 
taught  the  world  by  Germany  are:  1,  that  all  important 
teachers  must  be   professionally  trained  and  lessons  from 
therefore  have  a  professional  standing;  2,  that      ^™*^y- 
they  must  receive  permanent  appointments;  and  3,  that 
children  of  lawful  school  age  must  attend  school  every  day 
of  the  year  that  it  is  in  session,  the  parents  being  held 
accountable  for  such  attendance. 

All  of  these  propositions  are  practically  and  successfully 
worked  out  in  Germany,  as  later  pages  will  show.    Almost 
as  successfully  have  the  same  ideas  been  copied 
by  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Holland,  Bel-  ^^^*^ 
gium,  Austria,  and  other  countries.    Austria 
turned  the  crushing  defeat  of  Sadowa  in  1866  into  better 

9 


10  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

than  victory  in  that  it  opened  her  eyes  to  the  necessity  of 
better  schools,  and  led  to  the  adoption  practically  of  the 
school  system  of  Prussia.  Even  France,  after  her  humilia- 
tion of  1870,  learned  the  lesson  from  Germany  that  to 
have  better  soldiers  she  must  have  better  schools,  and  be- 
gan immediately  to  establish  a  school  system  in  some 
respects  better  than  that  of  her  enemy,  which  is  having 
wonderful  effect  upon  the  nation.  America  too  has  been 
benefited  by  a  study  of  the  German  schools,  and  by  the 
adoption  of  many  ideas  from  them.  The  teachings  of 
Pestalozzi,  Froebel,  Diesterweg,  Francke,  and  Herbart, 
have  exerted  a  wide  influence,  and  are  continuing  to  do  so. 
But  we  fully  believe  that  far  more  yet  remains  for  us  to 
learn  which  can  be  applied  successfully  to  our  conditions 
and  will  prove  a  great  blessing  to  our  land. 

The  two  great  things  that  America  needs  in  her  school 
system  are :  1,  professionally  trained  teachers  given  fixed 

places  as  soon  as  they  have  fulfilled  rigid  re- 
Two  gT6&t  JO 

things  quirements  as  to  fitness;  and  2,  compulsory 

America  education,  for  every  day  the  school  is  in  session, 
for  not  less  than  seven  years. 

The  question  of  professionally  trained  teachers  is  of  far 
more  importance  than  that  of  methods,  as  a  properly 
trained  teacher  will  settle  the  question  of  methods  to  suit 
his  own  individuality  after  having  learned  the  principles 
which  underlie  all  methods.  The  appointment  for  indefi- 
nite periods  would  largely  remove  the  schools  from  politics, 
as  the  few  appointments  to  be  made  from  year  to  year 
would  leave  comparatively  little  patronage  for  the  politi- 
cian to  distribute  and  would  therefore  destroy  his  baneful 
influence. 

The  second  great  need  is  compulsory  education,  not  an 
abortive  effort  to  secure  attendance  for  a  quarter  or  a  half 
of  the  school  year,  but  for  all  of  the  year.  For  a  quarter 
of  a  century  efforts  have  been  made  in  different  States  of 


Introduction.  11 

the  Union  to  secure  regular  school  attendance,  but  not 
with  anything  like  complete  success.  Failure  has  arisen 
from  the  incompleteness  in  the  requirements  of  laws 
passed.  France  has  adopted  within  ten  years  both  of  the 
above  requirements,  and  her  schools  have  attained  a  great 
degree  of  efficiency,  her  teachers  are  all  trained  and  her 
children  all  attend  school  regularly,  a  result  which  after 
half  a  century  of  effort  we  have  not  yet  reached. 
Surely  the  conditions  in  the  Republic  of  the 
United  States  are  not  less  favorable  nor  the  government 
less  strong  than  in  the  Republic  of  France  !  Both  of  the 
above  questions  are  discussed  at  length  in  later  chapters 
and  stress  laid  upon  their  importance. 

In  order  to  understand  the  German  school  system,  it  is 
necessary  that  its  historical  development  should  be  studied. 
This  history  is  fruitful  of  suggestions. '  They  show  not 
alone  the  difficulties  that  had  to  be  overcome,  th^  influ- 
ences that  were  set  at  work,  and  the  great  value  of  the 
schools  to  the  nation;  they  also  disclose  the  way  in  which 
other  nations  may  improve  their  school  systems  vaine  of  a 
and  through  them  assure  their  intellectual  and  ft^dy  »*  the 

°  history  of 

material  prosperity.      Others  may  thus  learn  German 
from  the  experience  of  Germany,  avoiding  the  education, 
errors  she  has  made  and  profiting  by  her  successes.     The 
study  of  her  school  government,  of  her  course  of  study,  of 
her  teachers  and  the  manner  of  training  them,  of  the  schools 
themselves  and  the  end  they  seek  to  reach,  will  afford 
abundant  material  for  thought,   awaken   discussion,  and 
stimulate  earnest    effort    for    educational    advancement. 
Activity  in  these  directions  can  only  result  in  good.     We 
possess  a  great  advantage  over  Germany  in  that 
we  are  not  bound  by  unbending  regulations,  advantage 
controlled  by  unprogressive  conservatism,  and  over 
loaded  down  with  traditions  which  reach  far  '**"''^*"^* 
back  into  the  past.   On  the  other  hand  new  ideas  are  gladly 


12  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

welcomed  by  us  no  matter  where  they  come  from,  and  there 
is  the  greatest  freedom  to  test  their  value  and  apply  them 
in  the  schools.  True,  many  things  have  proven  worthless 
upon  trial,  and  others  will  also  prove  so;  but  out  of  this 
repeated  effort  to  find  a  better  way  and  to  discover  the 
best,  some  good  will  come,  and  principles  will  be  estab- 
lished. 

The  chemist  must  make  many  experiments  before  he 
reaches  a  discovery;  an  Edison  discovers  the  principle  of 
,j^^  the  phonograph,  or  the  application  of  electricity 

discovered  for  lighting  purposes,  only  after  many  trials. 
after  searcli.  ^j^^j   g^^  ^^^   ^f  many   experiments,   some  of 

which  of  course  will  miscarry,  new  educational  principles, 
new  methods  of  instruction  will  be  discovered.  It  only 
remains  that  this  experimentation  shall  be  intelligently 
and  wisely  directed,  and  when  new  truths  are  discovered 
we  must  hold  fast  to  them.  And  the  truths  that  others 
have  discovered,  whether  it  be  a  Comenius,  a  Rousseau,  a 
Pestalozzi,  a  Herbert  Spencer,  or  a  Herbart,  should  be  re- 
ceived and  applied  by  us.  Edison  does  not  stop  to  dis- 
cover over  again  what  Franklin  discovered  a  century  ago, 
but,  accepting  the  facts  established,  he  goes  from  these 
into  new  fields  of  discovery  which  were  far  beyond  Frank- 
lin's horizon.     So  it  is  with  educational  questions. 

It  is  for  us  to  accept  the  lessons  already  learned  and 
proved  by  German  educators,  and  go  out  into  the  wider 
fields  which  stretch  out  invitingly  before  us.  We  have  but 
entered  the  borders  of  the  promised  land,  and  the  very 
freedom  above  indicated  makes  America  the  most  promis- 
ing land  in  the  world  for  pedagogical  enterprise  and  dis- 
covery. What  is  not  good  or  applicable  may  be  discarded, 
but  that  which  is  good  and  applicable  should  be  received, 
no  matter  where  it  comes  from  or  who  discovered  it. 


Early  History,  18 


CHAPTER  II. 

EARLY     HISTORY. 

Like  all  barbaric  and  semi-barbaric  races,  the  early  Ger- 
mans had  but  little  need  of  schooling  other  than  training 
in  bearing  arms,  and  in  the  use  of  their  rude 
implements  of  agriculture.    But  the  introduc-  g^j^oois. 
tion  of  Christianity  was  followed  by  efforts  to 
bestow  Christian  instruction.     Contact  with  the  Romans 
also  had  shown  the  Germans  the  need  of  culture,  especially 
to  the  higher  classes,  and  awakened  a  desire  for  it,  so  that 
founding  of  schools  was  begun  at  an  early  date. 
In   584   A.D.    Chlotar    II.    founded    a    court  ^^rst 
school,  where  sons  of  nobles  were  taught  gram-  554  j^.d. 
mar,  rhetoric,  dialectics,  and  jurisprudence. 

Wherever  the  missionaries  planted  the  cloister,  schools 
were  usually  connected  with  them.  While  it  is  true  that 
these  religious  institutions  limited  their  instruction  chiefly 
to  the  nobility  and  to  such  as  were  dedicated  to  the  sacred 
office,  and  while  the  world  thanks  them  for  the  collection 
and  preservation  of  valuable  manuscripts,  yet  their  main- 
tenance of  schools,  and  their  efforts  in  behalf  of  learning 
during  the  long  dark  period  of  the  Middle  Ages,  demands 
the  gratitude  of  the  educator. 

Boniface,   the    apostle  of    Christianity   to    Germany, 
founded  schools  in  the  cloisters  of  Wiirzburg,  Buraberg  in 
Hessen,  Eichstadt,  Erfurt,  Fulda,  and  other  jariy 
places,  in  the  eighth  century.     Charlemagne,  efforts, 
while  great  in  history  as  a  soldier  and  statesman,  must  not 
be  forgotten  in  the  history  of  German  education.    He  used 


14  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

every  opportunity  for  the  improvement  of  his  own  mind. 
He  surrounded  himself  with  the  most  learned  men  of  his 
own  vast  empire,  and  gathered  to  his  side  the  most  learned 
of  other  countries,  among  others,  Alcuin,  an  Englishman, 
who  did  much  to  promote  education.  Nor  did  he  stop 
with  his  own  personal  education,  but  sought  first  to  im- 
prove the  knowledge  of  the  ecclesiastics.  He  required  that 
every  priest  should  be  able  to  write,  sing,  read,  and  reckon 
— much  less  than  is  now  required  of  every  child — and  also 
that  the  priests  should  be  examined  by  the  bishops  in  these 
subjects,  as  well  as  in  their  knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, 

Though  this  seems  like  a  very  limited  requirement  for 
those  who  were  the  leaders  of  the  people  in  educational  as 
well  as  in  spiritual  matters,  the  dense  ignorance  of  the 
time  must  not  be  forgotten;  the  above  requirement  was 
found  to  be  all  that  could  be  attained  at  that  time.  It 
was  the  first  general  attempt  for  the  education  of  a  class 
of  people,  and  may  therefore  be  called  the  beginning  of 
education  in  Germany. 

Nor  did  this  great  emperor  stop  with  the  education  of 
the  ecclesiastics.  He  followed  this  up  by  the  religious  in- 
struction of  his  people  in  their  mother-tongue, 
compulsory  ^^^  showed  remarkable  educational  activity  in 
edncation  many  directions.  He  founded  schools  for  the 
°'*^'  sons  of  members  of  his  court,  and  required  that 
they  be  compelled  to  attend  them.  This  is  the  first  in- 
stance of  compulsory  education  on  record  in  Europe. 

In  the  schools  thus  founded  girls  had  no  part  whatever. 
It  was  considered  that  their  education  was  com- 
S^women.  plete  if  they  understood  spinning,  weaving,  and 
housekeeping.  Yet  Charlemagne  was  far  in 
advance  of  his  age  in  believing  in  the  possibility  of  the 
education  of  women,  inasmuch  as  he  required  his  daugh- 
ters to  learn  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages. 


Early  History.  15 

The  active  interest  which  this  great  man  took  in  the 
education  of  his  subjects  marks  him  as  one  of  the  greatest 
of  statesmen,  as  well  as  one  of  the  greatest  warriors,  and 
also  as  one  of  the  ablest  to  grapple  with  the  question  of 
education  that  has  ever  lived.  His  glory  as  an  educator  is 
the  more  enhanced  when  we  remember  the  dark  and 
densely  ignorant  period  in  which  he  lived. 

The  crusades  marked  a  new  epoch  in  the  development 
of  education  in  Germany.     The  new  impulse  i^fi^g^j^ 
given  to  commerce  by  the  moving  of  armies,  ot  the 
the  destruction  of  feudalism  and  the  consequent  «"••**•• 
development  of  citizenship,  the  rapid  increase  in  wealth, 
the  founding  of  many  churches,  and  the  remarkable  ac- 
tivity of  the  times  incited  by  the  crusades,  awoke  a  desire 
for  and  established  a  need  of  schools.    Accordingly  in  the 
thirteenth  and   fourteenth   centuries  many  schools  were 
founded,  and  the  first  by  the  state.     In  1262  pj^^ 
schools  were  organized  at   Liibeck  under  the  state  schools 
direction   of  the  city  authorities.     Hamburg,  **  i-ibeck. 
Breslau,  Rostock,  Stettin,  Leipzig,  Brunswick,  and  other 
cities  followed.     Previous  to  this  the  Church  had  taken 
exclusive  charge  of  education.     The  chief  work  of  these 
schools  was  to  teach  reading  and  writing,  especially  for 
commercial  purposes. 

The  teachers  were  generally  of  very  limited  knowledge. 
In  general  they  were  expelled  monks,  worthless  students, 
worn-out  preachers,  and  adventurers  of  various  sorts. 
Their  pay  was  from  18  to  $15  a  year,  but  besides  this  they 
received  some  presents.  In  some  cases  the  schoolmaster 
received  a  can  of  beer  and  some  candles  every  evening,  in 
order,  it  was  said,  that  he  might  be  the  more  diligent. 
This  was  the  condition  of  things  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  But  little  had  been  done;  but  yet  it  was  a  be- 
ginning, and  a  preparation  for  the  founding  of  that  system 
of  education  which  has  made  Germany  so  justly  celebrated. 


16  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

The  period  of  the  Reformation  had  now  arrived;  a  won- 
derful awakening  from  the  slumber  of  the  ages  was  wit- 
Educationai  nessed ;  the  revival  in  religion,  in  art,  in  science, 
awakeidng  ^^^  learning,  quite  naturally  worked  a  great 
Reformation,  influence  upon  the  schools  and  upon  the  cause 
of  general  education.  Luther  early  recognized  the  neces- 
sity of  education,  not  simply  of  the  priests,  but  also  of  the 
great  masses,  and  the  great  reformer  may  be  said  to  be  not 
simply  the  leader  of  the  Reformation,  the  founder  of  the 
Lnther  German  language  (by  his  translation  of  the  Holy 

of  the^nnan  ^^^^P^^^®^  ^^^^  German),  but  also  the  father 
school  system,  of  the  German  school  system.  Not  blind  acqui- 
escence in  the  decrees  of  the  Church,  but  an  earnest  and  in- 
telligent search  of  the  truth  was  the  key-note  of  his  teach- 
Lnther's  ing.  This  led  him  to  take  as  his  watchword, 
translation.  «  Make  the  people  acquainted  with  the  word 
of  God."  That  they  might  accomplish  this  he  translated 
it  into  their  mother-tongue,  and  preached  it  in  their  own 
language. 

This  elevated  the  importance  of  the  individual,  and  led 
him  to  think  for  himself,  and  to  give  thoughtful  and  in- 
telligent obedience  to  personal  conscience,  to  strive  to  work 
out  his  own  salvation  according  to  the  light  obtainable. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  that  great  movement  in  the  de- 
velopment of  individual  power,  individual  conscience, 
individual  activity,  and  self-reliance  among  mankind,  so 
manifest  in  these  last  years  of  the  world's  history. 

But  possession  of  the  Scriptures  was  of  little  account 
without  the  ability  to  read.  So  Luther  became  the  great- 
est pedagogue  of  his  time.  He  deplored  the  condition  of 
the  schools,  and  early  raised  his  voice  for  their 
pedaeoeos  radical  improvement.  In  his  own  person  he 
was  made  to  experience  the  evil  practices  in  the 
schools,  having  been  whipped  thirteen  times  in  a  single 
day,  without  having  broken  any  especial  rule.     He  called 


Early  History.  17 

the  schools  "  martyr-chambers."  Believing  most  earnestly 
that  the  world  was  on  the  threshold  of  a  wonderful  devel- 
opment, he  held  that  the  glory  and  success  of  the  future 
were  dependent  upon  the  education  of  the  youth.  One  of 
his  fundamental  principles  was  that  education  must  begin 
in  the  family.  He  says,  "Believe  me,  it  is  far  more  im- 
portant that  you  have  great  care  in  properly  training  your 
children  than  that  you  seek  indulgences,  say  Family 
many  prayers,  go  much  to  church,  or  make  training 
many  vows."  But  he  was  particular  with  reference  to  the 
kind  of  training.  Believing  that  "  the  fear  of  the  Lord  is 
the  beginning  of  wisdom,"  he  taught,  "  See  to  it  that  your 
children  above  all  things  are  instructed  in  divine  things, 
that  you  first  dedicate  them  to  God  and  then  to  worldly 
matters." 

Luther  did  the  German  nation  in  two  eSpecial  directions 
great  service  with  reference  to  training  children,  which, 
aside  from  his  work  as  reformer,  make  him  the  greatest 
benefactor  to  that  people  that  has  ever  lived.  He  held 
that  children  must  be  taught  to  use  their  hands,  to  work; 
girls  in  all  manner  of  housework,  boys  in  some  useful 
trade.  Secondly,  he  taught  the  duty  of  the  government 
to  compel  the  parents  to  send  their  children  to  j^^.  ^^  ^^^^ 
school,  even  if  it  became  necessary  to  assist  to  support 
them  from  public  funds.  Well  has  Germany  '*^<x'^* 
learned  and  practised  both  of  these  teachings  these  four 
centuries,  until  at  present  every  child  of  high  or  low  de- 
gree is  expected  to  learn  to  do  some  useful  employment, 
and  until  Germany  has  a  most  thorough  and  effective 
system  of  compulsory  education.  By  word  and  deed 
Luther  honored  the  schoolmaster  and  his  office.  He  says, 
"  The  true  and  diligent  schoolmaster  can  never  be  suffi- 
ciently rewarded,  nor  can  he  ever  be  paid  with  money  for 
his  great  services." 

Luther  urged  that  children  be  taught  reading,  writing, 


18  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

mathematics,  geography,  history  and  Latin,  but  above  all 
he  insisted  that  knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  is  the 
most  important  of  all.  He  even  went  so  far  as  to  advise 
that  a  child  should  never  be  sent  to  a  school  where  the 
Scriptures  did  not  control. 

Luther's  pedagogical  views  exert  to-day  a  wider  influence 
upon  the  schools  of  Germany  than  those  of  any  other  man 
that  has  yet  lived.     Let  us  recall  some  of  these  benefits. 

1.  He  taught  that  every  school  teacher  muet  be  able  to 
sing,  thereby  being  capable  of  leading  his  pupils  in  a 
Lather's  pleasant  form  of  recreation,  and  also  utilize 
8<a-vice  to  the  music  as  an  important  factor  in  instruction, 
schools.  j^  jg  jjQ^  required  of  every  teacher  not  only 
that  he  must  be  able  to  sing,  but  also  to  play  on  one  or 
more  musical  instruments. 

2.  The  study  of  the  Bible  he  believed  the  most  import- 
ant of  all  school  subjects.  This  has  become  a  fundamental 
thought  of  German  pedagogics. 

3.  He  insisted  that  the  teacher  should  be  respected  and 
that  he  could  not  be  paid  with  money;  the  universal 
respect  accorded  school  teachers  in  Germany  comes  from 
this  maxim  of  Luther's. 

4.  He  advocated  compulsory  education.  This  is  so 
thoroughly  established  that  no  one  thinks  it  could  be 
otherwise,  and  absence  from  school  upon  any  day  of  the 
year  when  the  school  is  in  session,  without  proper  cause,  is 
extremely  rare. 

5.  He  taught  that  children  must  be  trained  in  accord- 
ance with  Nature's  laws,  and  in  this  direction  he  began  a 
reform  in  the  schools  which  has  worked  wonderful  results. 

Besides  Luther,  Melancthon,  Bugenhagen,  Sturm, 
Zwingli,  Calvin  and  other  fathers  of  the  Reformation  con- 
other  tributed  to  the  cause  of  education,  and  each 
edacators.  recognized  the  importance  of  schools  as  a  means 
of  carrying  out  the  reforms  which  had  been  instituted. 


Early  History.  !• 

Accordingly  many  of  the  schools  were  supported  by  and 
closely  connected  with  the  churches. 

The  wages  of  teachers  in  the  sixteenth  century  were  cer- 
tainly not   high   from  any  standpoint.     For  example,  in 
Brunswick  the  cliief  teacher  received  from  fifty 
to  sixty  dollars  a  year.     Besides  this  he  received  ^g^^„ 
about  twenty-five  cents  a  year  from  each  pupil 
and  received  presents  from  the  community  and  a  small 
amount  of  perquisites  for  service  in  the  Church,  bringing 
the  total  amount  up  to  about  one  hundred  dollars  a  year. 

The  discipline  was  very  strict,  the  rod  being  often  ap- 
plied till  blood  flowed. 

The  schoolmaster,  it  is  said,  took  occasion  to  teach  gram- 
mar during  the  administration  of  castigation,  as  follows: 

Nominative Lie  down ! 

Genitive Bend  yourself! 

Dative Over  the  bench ! 

Accusative Don't  give  me  too  much ! 

Vocative It  hurts! 

Ablative Don't  do  it  again ! 

In  one  province  the  teachers  were  allowed  to  use  the  rod 
on  the  body,  but  were  forbidden  to  strike  the  head,  slap 
the  mouth,  pull  hair,  or  box  the  ears. 

While  Luther  by  his  translation  of  the  Bible,  and  by 
many  works  in  German,  gave  his  people  a  language,  Valen- 
tine  Ickelsamer,  a  follower  and  cotemporary  _. 
of  Luther,  issued  the  first   German  grammar,  German 
which  included  a  method  of  reading.     It  is  very  <»''*""'"r. 
interesting  to  note  that  this  method  was  phonic,  and  that 
the  idea  conveyed  by  the  word  must  be  given  before  the 
word  is  taught.     Thus  one  of  the  most  strongly  advocated 
pedagogical  axioms  of  the  present  day,  instead  of  being  new, 
has  the  sanction  of  more  than  three  centuries  upon  it. 


20  School  Systems  of  Germany. 


CHAPTER  III. 

BEGINNINGS  OF   SCHOOL  SYSTEMS. 

Among  the  many  men  who  shaped  educational  impulses 
and  who  assisted  in  laying  the  foundation  of  the  German 
school  system,  must  be  mentioned  Amos  Comenius,  who 
was  born  in  1592,  and  died  in  1681.  During  his 
long  life  of  ninety  years  he  never  ceased  to  be 
interested  in  the  education  of  the  young.  As  a  writer  and 
teacher  he  made  a  profound  impression,  not  alone  upon  the 
authorities,  but  also  upon  thinkers  of  all  classes.  Without 
discussing  his  eminent  work  as  a  writer  and  teacher  in 
other  fields,  it  is  interesting  to  note  here  his  influence  in 
moulding  school  systems. 

He  advocated  four  kinds  of  school :  1.  The  mother  school, 
covering  the  first  six  years  of  the  child's  life.     In  this  im- 
portant period  especial  attention  should  be  given 

Kinds  of  i*!  t'tiii 

schools  to  physical  growth,  and  to  the  development  of 

advocated  by  all  the  senses,  and  a  comprehension  of  the 
nearby  objects.  2.  The  German  school,  com- 
mencing at  the  sixth  year,  in  which  all  the  children  without 
exception  were  to  be  trained.  Such  a  school  must  be  sus- 
tained in  every  community.  Its  course  included  reading, 
spelling,  writing,  arithmetic  according  to  the  needs  of  or- 
dinary life,  the  Bible  and  catechism,  hymns  and  texts, 
some  geography,  and  knowledge  of  some  trade  or  business, 
3.  The  Latin  school,  planned  for  advanced  pupils,  who  were 
to  take  the  university  course.  4.  The  University,  which 
was  to  be  open  to  all  classes  who  have  completed  the  Latin 
school, 


Beginnings  of  School  Systems.  21 

Tliis  substantially  marks  the  present  division  of  schools 
in  the  German  system,  and  is  of  historical  importance  as 
one  of  the  factors  which  prepared  the  way  for  later  systems. 
Corresponding  wit  the  mother  school  is  the  Kindergarten, 
with  the  German  school  is  the  Volksschule,  with  the  Latin 
school  the  gymnasitim,  and  with  the  university  the  present 
nniversity. 

Not  only  the  rich  and  noble  were  to  have  the  advantage 

of  schools,  but  the  poor  and  the  lowly,  girls  as  w^ell  as 

boys.     Comenins  taught  that  education  without  morality 

and  the  fear  of  God  is  vain  and  tends  to  unhappiness.     He 

gave  to  the  German  school  system  this  thought 

which  has  become  the  corner-stone  of  German  ^JtJ^^^' 

stone. 

pedagogics.     He  sought  to  make  the  world  bet- 
ter by  making  the  schools  better,  and  left  an  impression 
which  is  felt  and  appreciated  more  and  more  throughout 
Germany  and    throughout  the  world,  as  intelligence  in- 
creases and  mankind  grows  better. 

Although  Germany  was  torn  during  the  seventeenth 
century  with  terrible  wars,  which  left  the  country  poor 

and  desolate,  and  cost  thousands  of  lives  and  _. 
'  Tne 

immense  treasure,  the  people  did  not  lose  their  seventeenth 
interest  in  the  education  of  their  children.  "'^*'"'y- 
During  this  dark  period  wise  school  laws  were  enacted  and 
put  in  force,  which  are  still  retained  as  fundamental  prin- 
ciples in  the  present  school  system  of  Germany,,and  which 
have  been  incorporated  into  the  school  systems  of  nearly 
every  civilized  country  of  the  globe. 

Among  other  laws  may  be  mentioned  those  bearing  upon 
school  attendance,  which  have  been  so  thoroughly  devel- 
oped and  which  have  made  Germany  famous 
throughout  the  world.  As  early  as  1619  it  was  puisory  edu- 
decreed  in  Weimar  that  all  children,  boys  as  cation  for  all 
Avell  as  girls,  should  be  kept  at  school  at  least 
from  the  sixth  till  the  twelfth  year.     This  was  the  first 


22  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

efficient  compulsory  education  law  on  record  which 
reached  all  classes  of  children.  The  teachers,  however, 
were  ignorant  and  unqualified,  the  schools  were  crude,  the 
requirements  of  the  schools  small.  The  chief  purpose  of 
the  schools  was  to  give  the  children  such  instruction  as 
would  fit  them  to  better  understand  their  duty  to  God 
and  to  the  Church.  But  in  spite  of  all  drawbacks,  the 
schools  exerted  a  great  influence,  and  this  marks  the 
brightest  sign  in  the  midst  of  the  demoralization  of  this 
terrible  period. 

Not  alone  Weimar,  but  also  Wurtemberg,  Hessen-Darm- 
stadt,  Mecklenburg,  Holstein,  Hessen-Cassel,  and  other 
places,  took  active  interest  in  the  education  of  the  children. 
They  organized  schools,  appointed  teachers,  adopted  cer- 
tain regulations,  thereby  making  a  good  beginning  in  the 
work  of  education. 

Among  the  rulers  of  German  provinces,  no  one  deserves 
higher  mention  as  an  educator  than  Duke  Ernst  the  Pious 
of  Gotha.  He  came  to  the  throne  of  this 
of  G«^?^*  small  dukedom  in  1640  and  began  immediately 
to  improve  the  schools.  In  1642  he  adopted  a 
new  school  regulation  which  was  remarkable  for  its  intelli- 
gence and  scope  and  which  was  a  century  in  advance  of  the 
time.  It  was  intended  to  reach  every  boy  and  girl  in  the 
province.  It  required  every  child  to  enter  school  after 
the  completion  of  his  fifth  year,  and  to  remain  in  school 
until  he  could  read  his  mother  tongue,  had  mastered 
Luther's  catechism,  and  was  well  grounded  in  reckoning, 
writing,  and  church  songs.  The  reception  of  children  in 
the  school  took  place  but  once  a  year.  Instruction  was 
given  each  week-day,  three  hours  in  the  forenoon  and  three 
hours  in  the  afternoon,  except  Wednesday  and  Saturday 
afternoons,  which  were  free.  A  vacation  of  six  weeks  was 
given  during  harvest,  but  such  children  as  were  not  em- 
ployed were  to  attend  school  two  hours  a  day  for  review.     A 


Beginnings  of  School  Systems.  23 

child  must  be  present  every  day,  and  only  sickness  could 
excuse  his  absence  from  school.  The  parent  was  made 
answerable  for  the  child's  attendance,  and  for  neglect  in 
this  matter  the  parent  was  fined  a  small  sum  for  firsf;  offense 
and  an  increased  fine  for  repetition.  Thus  early  was  laid 
down  a  principle  which  Germany  still  holds  to,  having  felt 
its  beneficent  results,  and  which  is  one  secret  of  the  success 
of  her  educational  system.  The  time  of  examinations  was 
carefully  fixed,  the  course  of  study  marked  out,  the  schools 
divided  into  grades,  and  many  methods  of  instruction 
indicated. 

In  this  small  province  was  thus  worked  out  in  the  17th 
century  the  first  universal  and  practical  experiment  of 
compulsory  education  for  a  whole  people.  It  was  quite 
thoroughly  carried  out,  until  the  Thirty  Years'  j^f^f.^  ^f  ^^ 
War  had  decimated  the  population  by  the  terrible  ThirtyYears* 
sacrifice  of  human  life,  impoverished  the  re-  ^"'' 
maining  inhabitants  of  Germany,  and  left  them  hopeless 
and  crushed.  In  spite  of  the  constant  efforts  of  Ernst 
and  his  successors,  the  law  cannot  be  said  to  have  been 
well  carried  out  in  Gotha  until  1726.  Even  after  that,  dis- 
charged soldiers  and  degraded  craftsmen  who  could  read 
and  write,  and  who  possessed  some  little  knowledge  of 
music,  continued  to  hold  the  office  of  teachers  because  there 
was  not  a  sufficient  supply  of  trained  teachers. 

In  the  meantime  other  provinces  had  surpassed  Gotha 
in  educational  zeal. 

WuRTEMBERG  began  in  1649  the  slow  development  of 
its  school  system  by  recognizing  the  duty  of  parents  to 
keep  their  children  in  school,  and  every  few  _  j  j^  ^ 
years  thereafter  more  and  more  stringent  re-  of  wirtem- 
quirements  were  added  to  the  law,  until  at  the  ''''*^- 
end  of  the  century  attendance  at  school  was  tolerably 
regular.  Not  until  1787,  however,  nearly  a  century  aiid  a 
half  later,  was  it  definitely  fixed  that  every  child  between 


24  School  Systems  of  Germany, 

six  and  fourteen  years  of  age  must  attend  school  every  day 
of  the  year,  and  this  law  was  carried  out  with  stringency 
and  success  in  the  cities.  It  was  probably  twenty  years 
more  before  it  was  enforced  in  the  country  districts.  School 
hours,  terms  of  school,  courses  of  study,  and  other  matters 
belonging  to  school  organization  were  arranged,  and  the 
schools  were  placed  on  a  substantial  basis. 
Saxony  had  a  law  in  1724  requiring  at  least  four  hours 
of  schooling  per  week,  and  it  was  specified  ex- 
d^axon'*'*'^'  pressly  that  girls  also  should  receive  instruc- 
tion. But  not  until  1772  was  much  heed  given 
to  the  subject,  when  a  law  was  passed  which  required  all 
children  from  the  end  of  their  fifth  year  until  they  were 
fourteen  years  of  age  to  attend  school  every  day  in  winter 
as  well  as  in  summer,  and  parents  were  made  subject  to 
punishment  for  non-compliance.  In  every  district  the 
church  authorities  were  required  to  keep  the  records  of 
births,  and  of  all  children  between  the  ages  of  six  and  four- 
teen, so  that  there  was  no  opportunity  for  parents  to  deceive, 
and  keep  their  children  out  of  school. 

But  to  Prussia  belongs  the  honor  of  being  the  first 
great  nation  to  carry  out  successfully  and  continuously  the 
principle  of  compulsory  education.  In  1648  it 
hTprussir^  was  ordered  that  parents  keep  their  children 
regularly  at  school;  but  not  till  1736,  nearly  one 
hundred  years  later,  was  there  a  rigid  law  on  the  subject. 
This  law  required  attendance  of  all  children  from  six  to 
Prussia  first  twelve  years  of  age.  In  1763  the  time  of 
to  make  com-  required  attendance  was  extended  to  the  four- 
plete  success    ,         , ,  it     •  x.  j     n 

of  the  com-    teenth  year.    Various  changes  were  made  from 

pnisory  law.  time  to  time,  strengthening  the  weak  places 
in  the  law  until  is  has  become  practically  perfect  in  its 
workings,  and  until  absence  from  school  by  those  subject  to 
the  requirements  of  the  law  is  almost  unknown.  The 
firmness  and  efficiency  with  which  Prussia  has  carried  out 


Bef^innings  of  School  Systems.  ^ 

the  compulsory  education  laws  has  had  a  good  effect, 
not  alone  on  other  German  provinces,  but  also  on  other 
nations  of  the  world.  We  shall  study  in  a  later  chapter 
the  particulars  of  the  compulsory  law  and  its  workings  in 
Prussia. 


School  Systems  of  Germany, 


CHAPTER  rV. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  VOLKSSCHULE. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  German  Volksschule 
(common  school)  dates  its  real  beginning  with  the  Refor- 
mation. We  huve  already  seen  that  Luther  regarded  the 
,  education  of  the  common  people  with  greatest 

interest  in  interest,  that  he  urged  the  establishment  of 
schooiB.  schools  for  all  children,  and  that  parents  be  re- 

quired to  keep  their  children  regularly  at  school.  He  also 
laid  down  certain  pedagogical  principles  which  have  never 
lost  their  practical  force  in  Germany  to  this  day,  and  are 
taught  as  sound  principles.  It  was  this  spirit  which  led 
him  to  give  his  countrymen  the  Bible  in  their  own 
tongue  in  such  simple  and  comprehensible  language  that  all 
could  understand.  His  preaching,  his  teaching,  and  his 
writings  all  sought  not  alone  the  salvation  of  his  people, 
but  their  education. 

But  it  must  not  be  imagined  that  a  school  system  in 
modern  sense  was  marked  out  in  Luther's  teachings,  or 
was  even  comprehended  in  his  thought.  That  system  is 
the  growth  of  centuries,  and  it  has  been  perfected  by  ex- 
periment and  correction  of  mistakes,  by  careful  study  on 
the  part  of  great  rulers,  wise  statesmen,  and  eminent  edu- 
cators, and  by  the  slow  progress  of  national  elevation,  and 
national  appreciation  of  the  need  of  education. 

We  will  trace  some  of  the  steps  of  this  growth.  The 
great  lack  of  suflBcient  numbers  of  educated  men  to  fill  the 
positions  of  public  officials  led  the  state  to  feel  the  want  of 
schools.    At  the  same  time  it  was  recognized  that  the  com- 


Vie  Development  of  the  Volksschule.  27 

mon  people  deserved  instruction  in  evangelical  doctrines, 
as  the  least  that  Church  and  state  had  a  right  to  give. 
The  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Ten  Commandments,  and  explana- 
tion of  them,  and  Luther's  catechism  formed  the  kernel  of 
the  first  school-book,  from  which  reading,  writ- 
ing  and  singing  were  taught.    The  people  were  school-book 
densely  ignorant,  and  it  was  sought  to  give  them   'or  reading, 
some   knowledge    of  those  things  wliich   are 
firstly  essential.     The  state  joined  with  the  Church  in  the 
support   of   such   schools.     Great    difficulties    constantly 
stood  in  the  way  of  success.     Teachers  were  illy  prepared 
and  badly  paid,  while  parents  neglected  or  refused  to  keep 
their  children  at  school. 

To  study  the  development  of  the  German  school  system 
historically,  would  require  a  discussion  of  the  systems  of 
each  of  the  provinces,  which,  though  thdy  differ  in  minor 
details,  agree  in  essentials.  We  will  therefore  limit  our 
discussion  to  the  system  of  Prussia,  which  will  sufficiently 
illustrate  all  the  others.  Prussia,  as  the  largest  and  most 
important  kingdom  of  the  v^.jrman  Empire,  and  containing 
about  three-fifths  of  the  population,  may  be  expected  to 
take  the  lead  in  educational  matters.  The  other  provinces 
have  followed  the  general  policy  of  Prussia,  therefore  a 
description  of  the  Prussian  system  will  show  the  general 
trend  of  all  and  suffice  to  give  a  good  idea  of  General 
education  throughout  Germany.  While  the  de-  nnityof 
tails  of  the  management  of  schools  may  slightly  grates  in 
differ  in  the  different  German  states,  in  the  cdncation. 
great  pedagogical  questions  that  agitate  the  minds  of 
educators,  and  that  make  for  the  general  development  of 
the  masses,  provincial  lines  are  not  drawn,  but  all  who 
speak  the  German  tongue,  think  and  write  and  speak  for 
tlio  Fatherland  as  one  people  having  one  general  educational 
purpose.  Thus  the  number  of  school  years  required,  the 
course  of  study,  compulsory  education,   the  training  of 


28  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

teachers  and  the  qualification  of  the  same,  pensions,  in- 
crease of  salaries  dependent  upon  length  of  service,  are  all 
conditions  which  are  about  the  same  everywhere  through- 
out the  German  Empire.  Pupils  going  from  one  state  to 
another  are  tlius  readily  admitted  to  a  corresponding  class 
in  the  new  home  without  loss  of  time  or  break  in  the  con- 
tinuity of  their  school  work.  This  holds  good  not  simply 
for  the  lower  schools,  but  also  for  students  of  the  high 
schools,  the  Gymnasia*  Realschulen  and  universities,  work 
in  each  German  institution  being  fully  recognized  in  every 
other  like  institution.  This  mutual  recognition  extends 
also  to  teachers  who  have  been  trained  in  the  schools  or 
seminaries  of  one  state  and  seek  positions  in  another  state. 
It  will  readily  appear  that  this  general  unity  is  of  vast 
account  in  furthering  the  interests  of  education. 

We  may  therefore  limit  our  study  to  the  common  schools 
of  Prussia,  thereby  giving  a  picture  to  American  educators 
that  is  full  of  suggestion,  and  will,  we  trust,  bear  abundant 
fruit  in  the  New  "World. 

The  Prussian  school  system  has  long  been  celebrated 
for  its  efficiency.  It  has  exerted  its  influence  over  every 
province  and  every  district,  over  every  city  and 
ImcTeicy*S*  ^^®^y  hamlet  in  the  kingdom  of  Prussia.  More 
the  Prussiaji  than  this,  it  has  extended  its  influence  over  all 
school  other  parts  of  Germany  and  over  many  of  the 

neighboring  European  states,  while  even  school 
systems  beyond  the  oceans  have  been  somewhat  shaped 

*As  the  OymrMslum  and  Real  school  have  no  exact  parallel  in 
American  institutions,  we  shall  use  the  German  names  to  denominate 
them  throughout  this  book.  The  Gymnasium  is  a  school  with  a  nine 
years*  course,  in  which  especial  attention  is  given  to  the  classics.  It 
graduates  its  pupils  at  about  20,  and  the  training  is  generally  recog- 
nized to  be  equal  to  that  necessary  to  enter  the  junior  class  of  one  of 
our  first-class  colleges.  The  position  of  the  Real  school  is  not  so 
thoroughly  defined  as  that  of  the  Gymnasium.  In  general  it  gives 
chief  attention  to  the  modern  languages  and  the  sciences. 


The  Development  of  the  Volksschule.  29 

thereby.     Therefore  it  must  be  of  highest  interest  to  study 
the  development  of  this  system. 

The  first  step  towards  the  foundation  of  the  Prussian 
school  system  was  taken  by  Elector  Joachim  II.,  who  ruled 
those  provinces  which  formed  the  nucleus  of  Beginning 
the  present  Kingdom  of  Prussia.  In  1540  he  ^^*, 
ordered  that,  as  the  schools  had  for  some  time  system, 
been  deteriorating  in  every  city  and  town,  they  should  be 
reorganized,  reformed,  and  improved.  Again,  in  1573 
another  decree  was  made  requiring  certain  visitation  and 
oversight  on  the  part  of  the  Church.  Indeed,  in  earlier 
times  the  direction  of  schools  was  almost  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  the  Church;  hence  orders  concerning  schools 
were  given  to  the  Church  and  carried  out  by  her.  The 
ruler  often  carried  out  wishes  expressed  by  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal bodies.  These  two  decrees  formed  the  nucleus  around 
which  whatever  of  school  laws  relating  to  general  educa- 
tion for  nearly  two  hundred  years  gathered. 

Great  difficulties  existed  which  required  centuries  to 
adjust.  The  people  did  not  speak  one  language  nor  have 
one  faith.  There  were  Catholics  and  Protestants,  Jews  and 
Christians.  This  increased  the  difficulty,  inasmuch  as  the 
conduct  of  the  schools  was  under  church  authority.  The 
people  were  poor,  and  the  means  at  the  command  of  the 
Church  were  exceedingly  limited.  Ignorance  and  lack  of 
interest  on  the  part  of  high  and  low  made  the  task  un- 
promising and  discouraging.  And  yet  the  province  was 
blessed  with  energetic  and  intelligent  rulers,  who  did  not 
abandon  the  work  amid  its  discouragements.  Schools 
were  for  a  long  time  organized  only  in  the  cities.  In  the 
villages  the  catechism  was  recited  to  the  church  sexton, 
whose  only  duty  was  to  see  that  the  children  had  memo- 
rized it  word  for  word.  It  was  not  until  after  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  that  any  attempt  was  made  to  include  villages 
and  country  people  in  a  school  system.    It  was  ordered  in 


30  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

1662  that  schools  be  organized  ia  villages  as  well  as  in 
cities  as  far  as  possible.  But  this  was  by  no  means  gen- 
eral, Brandenburg  being  the  first  province  in  which  the 

germ  of  a  general  school  system  was  planted. 
BrilSnbwg.  ^^^®^  provinces  followed.     In  1687  the  state 

began    to    consider    the    schools    not    simpjy 

church    organizations,  but   as    belonging    to    the    state. 

Many  other  provinces  of  Prussia  were  slow  to  move  in  th^ 

matter  of  schools.    The  teacher  still,  continued  to  be  9 

kind  of  pastor^s  assistant,  it  being  recorded  that  "a  teacher 

might  receive  a  present  from  the  church  treasury  provided 

he  did  not  work  in  opposition  to  the  pastor.^^    He  was  to 

teach  reading,  writing,  reckoning,  and  the  catechism,  and 

was  to  collect  his  pay  from  his  pupils.    A  great  difficulty 

arose  from  the  lacK  of  competent  teachers.     Candidates 

for  the  ministry  took  up  teaching  temporarily 

Poor  teacbers.     ,.••  «       i.r.'Ti;  1        t       ti 

while  preparing  for  their  life-work.    Invalid 

soldiers,  discharged  servants  of  gentlemen,  and  men  worth- 
less for  other  pursuits  were  appointed  teachers,  especially 
in  the  country  schools. 

It  may  be  said  to  the  glory  of  Frederick  "William  I.  and 
his  gi'eater  son,  Frederick  the  Great,  that  their  reigns  gave 
Germany  a  school  system.  The  former  of  these  sovereigns, 
while  noted  for  his  parsimony,  and  for  being  an  enemy  to 
Work  of  science  except  where  it  was  of  some  evident 
Frederick  practical  use,  yet  was  liberal  towards  schools. 
wuiiam  I.  jjg  established  four  hundred  schools  among  the 
common  people  with  money  saved  from  the  expenditures 
of  the  royal  household  as  one  of  the  first  measures  of  his 
reign,  and  before  the  close  of  his  reign  he  had  established 
eighteen  hundred  such  schools.  He  could  drive  professors 
from  their  chairs  and  from  his  kingdom  because  they  dif- 
fered from  him  in  faith,  but  he  loved  the  common  people 
and  sought  to  elevate  them  by  the  most  effective  measure, 
namely,  by  means  of  education.* 

*  Bayard  Taylor's  Hist,  of  Germany,  p.  441. 


The  Development  of  the  Volksschule.  31 

His  son,  Frederick  the  Great,  after  devoting  the  earlier 
years  of  his  reign  to  war,  also  turned  his  attention  to  the 
education  of  his  subjects.  He  was  far  broader  and  more 
liberal  in  his  views  than  his  father  and  accomplished  far 
more.  We  shall  discuss  his  work  more  particularly  farther 
on.  Both  of  these  kings  were  excellent  organ-  General  cui- 
izer8,and  both  recognized  the  necessity  of  general  *""  nece»- 
culture  of  a  people  in  order  to  secure  stability  stable 
of  government.  They  organized  schools  in  govenuneat. 
great  numbers,  but  better  than  this,  they  founded  institu- 
tions for  training  teachers. 

The  first  general  school  law  for  the  Prussian  monarchy 

was  issued  in  1713.     This  applied  to  all  institutions  of 

learning.     Francke  established  his  celebrated 

institutions  (Stiftungen)  at  Halle,  and  Prussia  J^*"*  general 
.  .  school  law  in 

received  her  first  trained  professional  instruc-  pmasia. 

tors.*  Other  royal  decrees  followed,  perfecting 
the  school  laws  and  widening  their  influence.  A  teachers' 
seminary  was  established  in  1735  in  Stettin  by  private  means. 
This  was  the  first  institution  established  exclusively  for 
the  training  of  teachers.  Comenius  had  taught  one  hun- 
dred years  before  the  necessity  of  trained  teachers,  and 
from  him  comes  undoubtedly  the  first  suggestion  of  a 
normal  school. 

Duke  Ernst  of  Gotha,  whose  work  for  the  education  of 
his  people  we  have  already  described  (page  22),  directed 
that  his  successor  siiould  establish  institutions 
for  teachers.    This  wish,  however,  was  not  car-    The  Wetiats. 
ried  out.     The  Pietists  began  to  awaken  great 
interest  in  education  early  in  the  eighteenth  century.    An 
outgrowth  of  this  movement  was  the  founding 
of  the    celebrated    institutions  by  Francke  in  Francke's 
Halle.   But  none  of  these,  although  they  trained  ^j^  BxMt. 
teachers,  made  a  specialty  of  that  work  exclu- 
sively.  Soon  after  the  founding  of  the  teachers'  seminary  at 

*  Cyclopaedia  of  Education,  Kiddle  and  Scbem,  p.  363. 


32  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

Stettin  the  king  ordered  the  establishment  of  a  normal 
school  at  Magdeburg  (1736). 

In  1881  Berlin  celebrated  the  jubilee  of  her  city  teachers' 
seminary,  that  having  been  established  in  1831.  Although 
there  had  been  two  predecessors, — the  Kurmark  Seminary, 
for  country  teachers,  established  in  1748,  and  the  seminary 
for  the  Volks  schools,  in  1804, — neither  of  these  were  re- 
garded as  the  real  beginning  of  city  normal  schools  in 
Berlin.* 

Prussia  continued  to  establish  teachers'  seminaries,  until 
now  she  has  sufficient  means  of  training  all  her  teachers 
for  their  special  work.  Another  important  step  was  taken 
in  1794,  when  a  law  was  passed  making  all  institutions  of 
learning,  including  universities,  state  institutions.  Previ- 
ous to  that  time  they  had  been  regarded  as  Church  institu- 
tions, and  the  Church  had  them  under  her  fostering  care. 
The  Church  continued  to  have  a  share  in  the  maintenance 
and  direction  of  the  schools,  and  continues  to  do  so  until 
this  present  time.  But  the  state  took  them  in  charge 
upon  the  above  date  and  has  maintained  that  right  ever 
since,  while  the  influence  of  the  Church  in  the  schools 
grows  less  from  year  to  year.  This  law  was  of  the  utmost 
importance,  not  alone  because  the  state  assumed  the  re- 
sponsibility of  education,  but  because  it  laid  the  founda- 
tion for  a  legally  recognized  school  system  for  the  whole 
monarchy. 

*  Nachrichteu  Uber  d.  kOnigl.  Seminar  fUr  StadtschuUehrer. 


The  Volksschule  under  Frederick  the  Great.        33 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  VOLKSSCHULE  UNDER  FREDERICK  THE  GREAT. 

Prussians  point  with  great  pride  to  Frederick  the  Great 
as  a  hero,  warrior,  and  statesman.  He  was  all  of  these,  and 
by  force  of  arms  he  not  only  extended  the  borders  of  his 
kingdom,  adding  greatly  to  his  possessions,  but  he  also 
elevated  his  nation  in  the  eyes  of  the  whole  world.  But 
in  no  direction  did  he  so  thoroughly  prove  his  statesman- 
ship as  in  his  interest  in  the  education  of  his  subjects  and 
in  the  founding  of  schools. 

His  father  had  left  him  a  full  treasury,  and  a  govern- 
mental machinery  simple  in  its  details,  methodical,  rigidly 
economical  and  in  thorough  working  order.  Frederick, 
being  ambitious  for  martial  glory,  entered  upon  military 
conquests  at  the  very  outset,  and  for  the  first  twenty  years 
of  his  reign  his  whole  thought  was  absorbed  in  war.  But 
in  1763  at  the  close  of  the  "  Seven  Years'  War,"  he  turned 
his  attention  to  the  internal  affairs  of  his  kingdom,  espe- 
cially to  the  schools.  He  issued  a  general  school  regula- 
tion which  was  to  apply  to  the  whole  nation. 

TheFrenchphilosopher  of  nature,  Rousseau  (1712-1778), 
sounded  the  key-note  of  a  great  reform  in  school  methods, 
which  was  taken  up  by  Pestalozzi,  Frederick 
the  Great,  Kant,  Goethe,  Schiller,  Jean  Paul, 
Fichte,  Schleiermacher  and  others.  Rousseau  sought  to 
bring  the  child  by  natural  methods  to  self-consciousness,  to 
freedom  of  thought  and  action.  The  French  Revolution 
was  the  outcome  of  Rousseau's  teachings  carried  to  the 
extreme.     The  Germans  took  his  teachings  more  philoso- 


34  School  Systems  of  Germany, 

phically,  and  therefore  good  rather  than  evil  resulted  from 
them. 

Undoubtedly  the  works  of  Rousseau  exercised  a  great 
influence  upon  the  "  philosopher  of  Sans  Souci,"  who  had 
been  already  from  boyhood  strongly  permeated  with  the 

teachings  of  the  French  philosophers.  Rous- 
L^^nce  of    gg^^^'g  «  Eniile  "  had  appeared,  and  all  Europe 

was  discussing  it,  while  its  new  ideas  were  ex- 
citing universal  interest.  The  philosopher  Kant  was  so 
interested  in  the  book  that  he  forgot  to  take  his  regular 
walks  to  which  he  had  been  accustomed  for  years. 

Goethe  declared  it,  "das  Evangelium  der  Erziehung" 
(the  gospel  of  education).  Rousseau  declared  war  against 
Goethe's  ^^^  previous  methods  of  instruction,  especially 
opijiion  of      those  that  made  religion  take  a  prominent  place. 

He  placed  great  stress  upon  bodily  development, 
for,  said  he,  "  The  weaker  the  body  the  more  it  demands, 
the  stronger  it  is  the  more  it  is  obedient  to  the  mind.'* 
The  child  must  unite  the  understanding  of  the  sage  with 
the  strength  of  the  athlete.  Such  teaching  as  this  could 
not  fail  to  please  a  ruler  who  was  so  intelligent  as  Frederick 
and  who  so  earnestly  sought  the  good  of  his  people. 

Rousseau  further  taught, "  Let  the  first  education  be  nega- 
tive; do  not  force  the  child  to  learn,  but  let  him  learn  from 

nature — no  other  book  but  the  world  about  him, 
SSs!      ^^  °*^^^  teaching  but  that  of  living  facts.     The 

child  is  not  to  know  because  he  has  been  told, 
but  because  he  has  found  out  for  himself.  He  does  not 
learn  science — he  discovers  it.  The  first  development  is 
that  of  the  senses,  and  the  first  knowledge  is  that  which  is 
obtained  by  the  senses."  Rousseau  says,  "  Emile  has  indeed 
but  little  knowledge,  but  he  has  no  half-knowledge.'* 

Pestalozzi  especially  was  gi-eatly  influenced  by  Rousseau, 
and  all  Germany  also  was  greatly  moved  by  this  new  teach- 
ing.   One  of  the  outcomes  of  this  movement  was  the 


Tbe  Volksschule  under  Frederick  the  Great.         35 

founding  of  teachers'  seminaries  or  normal  schools.  In 
many  parts  of  Germany  the  sceptre  of  the  schoolmaster 
was  still  largely  in  the  hands  of  invalid  soldiers,  impover- 
ished professionals,  bankrupt  merchants,  cripj^led  young 
men,  worthless  students,  ladies  who  had  not  succeeded  in 
finding  husbands,  and  widows  without  resources, — in  a 
word,  persons  who  had  turned  to  this  calling  as  their  last 
sheet-anchor.  If  they  could  read,  write  and  cipher,  and 
were  orthodox  in  faith,  no  one  asked  for  wider  culture. 
But  the  teachings  of  Rousseau,  having  given  new  impulse 
to  education,  created  a  demand  for  better  instructors. 
Accordingly  teachers'  seminaries  were  founded  Qj-owth  of 
in  all  parts  of  Germany,  as  already  mentioned,  normal 
and  the  want  of  better  trained  teachers,  which  "«'^«'«i»' 
we  have  seen  to  have  already  been  a  struggling  conception 
in  the  minds  of  the  foremost  thinkers^  came  to  be  an 
imperative  demand,  and  teachers'  training  schools  sprang 
up  in  various  parts  of  the  Fatherland. 

But  Prussia  was  the  first  province  to  give  normal  schools 
prestige  and  character,  and  to  make  them  a  necessary  part 
of  the  school  system — an  example  which  has  been  followed 
by  all  the  other  German  states. 

As  early  as  1697  August  Hermann  Francke  organized  a 
teachers'  class  in  his  celebrated  orphan  school  at  Halle. 
It  consisted  of  poor  students  who  assisted  him  in  teaching 
to  pay  for  their  board  and  lodging.  In  1704  Francke 
organized  a  seminary  for  teachers  in  which  the  pupil- 
teachers  were  given  two  years  of  training.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  such  remarkable  results  that  the  fame  of  Francke's 
teachers  spread  all  over  Europe,  and  hundreds 
of  educators   flocked  to   Halle    to  study  the  ^*™«  •' 

Vf>  An  ck  A^A 

methods  of  instruction  in  the  institution.    Other  iMtitution. 
seminaries  were  established  in  various  parts  of 
Prussia, — at  Stettin,  at  Berlin,  and  in  other  places,  as  we 
have  already   seen.      From   Prussia    the    idea  ^adually 


36  School  Systems  of  Germany, 

spread  all  over  Europe  and  to  America.  Frederick  the 
Great  encouraged  normal  schools  by  issuing  an  ordinance 
that  all  vacancies  in  schools  on  the  crown  lands  should  be 
filled  by  teachers  trained  in  the  Berlin  seminary. 

The  remarkable  impulses  which  were  agitating  the 
educational  world  could  not  fail  to  have  an  influence  upon 
the  mind  of  one  so  intelligent;  of  one  so  much  interested 
in  the  welfare  of  liis  subjects,  as  the  great  Prussian  king. 
Accordingly  in  1763,  when  peace  was  established  in  his 
kingdom,  he  issued  the  general  school  regulation  already 
mentioned,  which  is  the  foundation  of  the  present  school 
system  of  Prussia.  The  details  of  this  regulation  are  as 
follows : 

It  made  attendance  at  school  compulsory,  it  fixed  the 
period  of  attendance,  established  fines  for  non-attendance, 
Frederick  the  required  the  payment  of  tuition  fees  for  each 
Great's  school  pupil,  and  provided  from  state  funds  what  was 
regulations,    lacking  for  the  support  of  schools. 

It  regulated  the  choice  of  teachers,  requiring  that  all 
teachers  in  the  principal  schools  should  have  been  trained 
in  a  teachers'  seminary,  and  specified  the  examination 
which  each  must  pass.  It  cared  for  the  support  of  teachers. 
It  defined  what  school-books  should  be  used  and  gave 
direction  as  to  methods  of  instruction.  It  provided  for 
superintendence  of  the  schools. 

Unlike  his  father,  the  king  proclaimed  religious  toler- 
ance, and  called  back  the  professors  whom  his  father  had 
banished.  During  his  reign  the  office  of  teacher,  hereto- 
fore despised,  came  to  be  respected,  while  pedagogics  be- 
gan to  take  the  direction  of  an  acknowledged  science. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  important  school  law  of 
1794. 
uwS^m*.       ^*^®  following  are  its  important  details  : 

1.  All  public  schools  and  educational  institu- 
tions are  under  the  care  of  the  state, 


The  Volksschule  under  Frederick  the  Great.         3'? 

2.  No  person  shall  be  excluded  from  the  public  schools 
on  account  of  religious  belief. 

3.  Children  brought  up  under  another  religion  cannot 
be  compelled  to  remain  at  religious  instruction  which  is 
contrary  to  the  faith  in  which  they  have  been  brought  up. 

4.  Schools  and  gymnasia  in  which  the  youth  are  taught 
the  higher  sciences  or  arts  have  all  the  rights  of  corpora- 
tions. 

5.  Such  schools  are  under  the  direction  of  the  school 
authorities  appointed  by  the  state. 

6.  Where  the  appointment  of  teachers  does  not  rest 
with  particular  persons,  it  belongs  to  the  state. 

7.  Without  the  knowledge  and  consent  of  local  school 
authorities  can  neither  new  teachers  be  chosen  nor  impor- 
tant changes  in  the  arrangement  of  the  schools  and  man- 
ner of  instruction  take  place. 

8.  As  superintendents,  inspectors,  and  overseers  of  the 
schools  can  only  persons  of  sufficient  knowledge,  good 
morals,  and  proper  judgment  be  chosen. 

9.  No  pupil  shall  be  allowed  to  leave  school  without  the 
written  permission  of  the  teacher  and  school -inspector. 

10.  The  teachers  of  the  gymnasia  and  high  schools  are 
considered  officers  of  the  state. 

11.  The  direction  as  to  manner  of  educating  the  child 
rests  with  the  father,  who  must  have  especial  care  for  his 
religious  training,  as  well  as  for  the  knowledge  necessary 
to  his  position  in  life. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  regulation  is  exceedingly  com- 
prehensive, but  at  the  same  time  remarkably  liberal.  It 
recognized  that  education  is  necessary  to  the  production  of 
good  citizenship.  This  regulation  has  been  modified  from 
time  to  time,  but  the  above  ideas  remain  the 
fundamental  principles  of  the  present  school  ^e'chwch"* 
system.  Naturally  it  met  with  opposition  on 
the  part  of  the  Church,  as  well  as  on  the  part  of  the 

45382 


38  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

ignorant  masses;  but  it  was  persisted  in  until  the  German 
people  have  come  to  recognize  their  school  system  as  the 
chief  contributor  to  their  present  greatness  and  strength. 

Although  Frederick  the  Great  was  a  follower  of  Voltaire, 
and  therefore  extremely  liberal  in  his  religious  views,  if  not 
infidel,  he  recognized  in  religion  a  necessary  means  to  moral- 
Necessity  of  ity.  He  therefore  encouraged  religion  in  the 
religion  rec-  schools  and  it  remained  the  chief  end  of  school 
Frederick  work.  He  approved  of  the  regulation  which 
the  Great.  urged  that  the  school  teacher  more  than  others 
should  be  diligent  in  the  practice  of  godliness,  well 
grounded  in  the  knowledge  of  the  Bible,  and  a  true  fol- 
lower of  the  Master,  in  order  that  by  life  and  teaching  he 
might  lead  his  pupils  to  preparation  for  the  duties  of  this 
life  and  for  the  life  which  is  to  come.     Vacations  were 

fixed  usually  with  reference  to  the  holy  days  of 
VacAtioiis  1  J       >i 

the   Church.     Thus   Easter,    Whitsunday,    St. 

Michaelmas,  and  Christmas  were  occasions  for  holidays. 

The  longest  vacation  came,  however,  in  harvest  time. 

The  expense  of  schooling  in  Frederick's  time  was  as 
follows :  for  each  child  until  it  was  able  to  read,  six  pfen- 
nigs (li  cents)  per  week  tuition  was  paid ;  when  it  could 
read,  nine  pfennigs;  when  able  to  write  and  cipher,  ten 
pfennigs.  In  summer  two-thirds  of  these  rates  was  re- 
quired, as  no  fire  was  necessary.  If  the  parents  were  too 
j)Oor  to  pay  this  nominal  sum,  the  Church  or  the  poor  fund 
must  meet  it.  In  no  case  could  a  child  be  excused  or  ex- 
cluded from  the  school.  While  the  daily  sessions  .were 
generally  from  eight  to  eleven  a.m.,  and  from  one  to  four 
P.M.,  in  some  communities  in  the  summer  school  began  at 
five  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  was  out  at  eight,  and  then 
again  from  five  to  eight  in  the  evening.  This  gave  the 
most  of  the  day  for  work. 

Much  was  done  to  systematize  the  work  of  the  schools 
and  to  develop  proper  methods  of  instruction.     Frederick 


The  Volksscbule  under  Frederick  the  Great.        39 

the  Great  combated  the  principle  of  practicability  as  to 
studies  pursued   which  governed  the  schools  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  urged  that  teachers  should  endeavor 
"  to  cultivate  a  taste  in  their  pupils  for  the  true,  the  good 
and    the  beautiful."    The   philosopher    Kant 
greatly  aided  in  this  important  work,  and  gave 
principles  in  his  philosophy  which  exerted  a  great  influ- 
ence upon  pedagogics.     The  purpose  of  education,  says  he, 
is  the  realization  of  the  moral  idea.     Education  must  cul- 
tivate and  civilize  man,  and  make  him  moral. 
Thus    an    important    and   comparatively  new  taYdncationV 
ideal  of  education  was  introduced,  a  principle 
which  has  exerted  a  vast  influence  for  good  upon  education 
everywhere  since  that  time. 

Germany  has  never  abandoned  this  as  a  fundamental 
idea  of  education,  and  the  question  of  utility  simply  has 
never  had  a  prominent  place  in  her  pedagogics  since  Kant 
destroyed  the  utilitarian  idea  of  education,  and  proved 
conclusively  that  teaching  must  have  the  development  of 
the  child,  and  not  the  fitting  of  him  for  practical  life  for 
its  chief  end.  Frederick  the  Great,  imbued  as  he  was 
with  the  teachings  of  Voltaire  and  Rousseau,  early  sought 
to  give  this  latter  trend  to  the  education  of  his  subjects, 
though  not  with  perfect  success.  But  the  reign  of  this 
great  man  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  important 
for  Prussia  for  what  it  did  to  encourage  schools,  educate 
the  people,  and  establish  the  Prussian  school  system. 


40  School  Systems  of  Germanv- 


CHAPTER  VI. 

DEVELOPMENT  SINCE  THE  TIME  OF  FREDERICK  THE 
GREAT. 

The  kings  that  followed  Frederick  the  Great  continued 
to  have  a  deep  interest  in  the  matter  of  education.  Amid 
all  the  political  changes,  national  losses,  and  disasters  to 
Prussia  during  the  period  when  her  arch-enemy  Napoleon 
had  her  at  his  feet,  she  never  for  a  moment  lost  sight  of 
the  importance  of  enlightened  education.  Frederick  Wil- 
liam III.,  father  of  the  late  emperor  William  I.,  declared 
that,  "  Although  we  have  lost  territory,  power,  and  prestige, 
still  we  must  strive  to  regain  what  we  have  lost  by  acquir- 
ing intellectual  and  moral  power;  and,  therefore,  it  is  my 
earnest  desire  and  will  to  habilitate  the  nation  by  devot- 
ing a  most  earnest  attention  to  the  education  of  the  masses 

of  my  people."  Perhaps  history  does  not  show 
ed  c^Mi        ^  better  instance  of  the  fulfilment  of  a  prophetic 

resolve  on  the  part  of  a  great  ruler  when  we 
remember  the  unparalleled  triumph  of  the  son  of  this  king 
in  France  in  1870-71,  the  triumph  of  education  and  train- 
ing over  ignorance  and  impetuosity. 

National  education  had  been  under  the  charge  of  a  com- 
mittee subordinate  to  the  state  minister  of  justice,  but 
from  1808  until  1811  it  was  placed  under  the  charge  of 

Wilhelm  von  Humboldt,  and  made  a  depart- 
•wuheimvon  ment  of  the  ministry  of  the  interior.  It  con- 
work,  tinned    in  the    same   department    under  von 

Schuckmann  until  1818.  These  two  men 
wrought  a  transformation  in  educational  matters.    The 


Development  since  the  Time  of  Frederick  the  Great.    41 

laws  regulating  national  and  popular  education,  for  some 
time  a  dead  letter,  became  for  the  first  time  and  for  all 
time  a  reality.     Teachers  were  called  from  other  states, 
and  every  effort   made  to   secure   instructors  with  most 
modern  ideas  and  of  extensive  culture.     Some 
teachers  were  trained  under  the  personal  super-    pestaiozzi'e 
vision  of  Pestalozzi,  and  a  new  spirit  pervaded    iiifiuence. 
all  classes  regarding  general  education. 

In  1818  this  department  was  detached  from  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Interior  and  given  a  separate  head  with  the 
title  of  Ministry  for  Educational  Affairs  (Min- 
isterium  fiir  den  Cultus  und  fiir  Unterricht).  partmentfor 
This  title  was  later  changed  to  Ministry  for  edncationai 
Spiritual,  Educational  and  Medicinal  Affairs 
(Ministerium  der  geistlicheu,  Unterrichts-  und  Medizinal- 
Angelegenheiten),  which  this  department  bears  at  present. 

The  first  to  hold  this  important  position  after 

Baron  von 
it  became  an  independent  department  was  Baron  Aitenstein 

von  Aitenstein,  who  continued  in  this  office  the  first 

till  1840,  a  period  of  twenty-two  years.     He 

was  a  man  of  eminent  educational  fitness,  who  brought  to 

the  position  a  wide  culture,  a  great  executive  ability,  and 

a  national  reputation. 

Besides  this,  which  was  of  transcendent  importance,  he 
had  a  warm  interest  in  the  education  of  the  masses  of  his 
people,  the  common  folk. 

"When  we  consider  the  scanty  financial  support  that  he 
received,  together  with  the  immense  task  that  he  under- 
took, it  will  be  seen  that  the  progress  of  national  educa- 
tion during  his  administration  was  remarkable. 

He  turned  his  attention  immediately  to  the  improve- 
ment of  all  the  schools.     An  examination  of  _     .^  . 

Resnlt  of  von 

the  condition    of   Prussia  between    1819   and  Aitenstein's 
1821  shows  the   following  facts  :   There  were  '^''^^' 
2462  city  schools,  with  3749  teachers,  and  17,623  country 


42  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

schools,  with  18,140  teachers.  At  his  death  in  1840  there 
were  in  Prussia  6  universities,  120  gymnasia,  a  large  num- 
ber of  Beal  scliools,  38  teachers'  seminaries,  and  about 
30,000  public  schools.  All  of  these  were  in  good  condition, 
and  there  was  everywhere  a  healthy  interest  in  education. 
The  number  of  children  attending  school  equalled  one 
sixth  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  kingdom,  a  result  never  be- 
fore attained  by  any  nation  in  the  history  of  the  world.* 

The  next  important  law  after  that  of  1794  was  that  of 
1817,  which  established  the  department  of  education  under 
a  separate  ministry.  In  1825  general  laws  were  enacted 
in  which  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  provincial  school 
board  were  changed  and  amplified. 

In  1854  the  organization  of  the  school  system  was  re- 
vised, and  finally  in  1872,  under  Minister  Falk,  another 
Important  revision  took  place  in  which  the  school  courses 
school  laws,  were  fixed,  the  subjects  to  be  taught  and  work 
to  be  accomplished  in  each  specified,  the  schools  classified, 
and  the  purpose  and  work  of  the  common  schools  carefully 
defined.  The  regulations  of  1872  constitute  the  basis  and 
furnish  the  directions  which  are  followed  to  the  present 
time.  Wliile  there  have  been  other  laws  enacted  from 
time  to  time  bearing  upon  the  schools,  inspection  and  sup- 
port of  the  same;  the  teachers,  their  training,  appoint- 
ment and  support;  the  government  and  management  of 
the  schools,  etc.,  these  constitute  the  chief  enactments  for 
the  schools  during  this  century. 

In  general  we  may  note  the  following  changes  and  tend- 
encies : 

*  Since  von  Altenstein  Prussia  has  been  served  by  eminent  men 
in  the  capacity  of  Minister  for  Educational  Affairs,  among  whom 
we  may  mention  Eichhom  (1840-48),  von  Raumer  (1850-58),  von 
Bethmaan-Hollweg  (1858-62),  von  MQller  (1862-72),  von  Falk  (1872- 
79),  von  Puttkammer  (1879-81),  von  Qossler  (1881-91),  von  Zedlitz- 
Tratzchler  (1891-92),  and  Dr.  Bosse  since  1892. 


Development  since  the  Time  of  Frederick  the  Great.    43 


1.  The  state  contributes  far  more  from  its  general  funds 
to  the  support  of  schools  than  formerly.     AVe 

shall  see  later  that  it  now  pays  nearly  half  of  ^^J^^c'imT 
the  expenses  of  the  common  schools,  and  this 
proportion  is  constantly  increasing,  whereas  formerly  the 
state  contributed  little  or  nothing. 

2.  Because  of  this  state  support,  and  because  of  its  right 
to  educate  the  children,  the  tendency  is  to  centralize  the 
school  system  and  take  from  the  community  its  authority 
and  rights  to  control  its  own  school.  This  is  viewed  with 
jealousy  by  many  who  believe  that  parents  should  have  the 
largest  voice  in  the  education  of  their  own  children  and  in 
the  selection  of  those  who  are  to  teach  them. 

3.  The  schools,  which  formerly  were  wholly  under 
Church  control,  are  being  separated  from  ecclesiastical  in- 
fluence. While  they  are  state  institutions,  the  Church, 
through  its  pastors  and  through  the  union  of  many 
teachers'  positions  with  a  Church  oflfice,  still  has  a  great 
deal  to  do  with  the  schools.  At  least  three-fourths  of  the 
school-inspectors  are  local  pastors.  The  teachers  desire 
the  removal  of  Church  authority  and  the  appointment  of 
pedagogically  trained  men  as  school-inspectors,  an  end 
which  undoubtedly  will  be  reached  sooner  or  later. 

4.  The  general  abolition  of  tuition  fees,  making  the 
schools  practically  free,  is  a  powerful  agent  for  extinguish- 
ing class  distinctions.  The  free  schools  are  gi'owing  in 
popularity,  and  are  drawing  to  themselves  an  ever  increas- 
ing proportion  of  the  children.  This  does  not  indicate 
that  class  distinctions  will  ever  be  wholly  eradicated  from 
German  life;  but  formerly  when  there  were  schools 
charging  different  tuition  rates,  especially  in  cities,  parents 
who  were  poor  were  obliged  to  send  their  children  to 
schools  where  the  tuition  was  small;  those  who  were  better 
off  could  afford  better  schools;  and  so  on  up  the  ^96tie, 
thus  creating  the  worst   kind   of  class  relations.     Free 


44  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

schools  remove  this  evil,  giving  to  children  of  poor  parents 
the  same  privileges  as  those  of  the  rich.  Tliose  who  still 
wish  for  exclusiveness  can  make  use  of  the  private  schools, 
but  these  are  decreasing  in  power  and  number. 

5.  Another  important  tendency  is  found  in  the  disposi- 
tion to  give  the  teachers  better  salaries,  to  reduce  the  num- 
ber of  pupils  to  a  teacher,  to  furnish  better  schoolhouses 
and  school  appliances,  and  to  give  the  instructor  greater 
freedom  in  his  methods  of  instruction.  All  of  these  are 
needed  reforms  which  are  already  under  way,  and  which 
promise  still  greater  things  for  the  common  schools  of 
Prussia  than  the  past  has  witnessed. 

Far  more  important  for  the  schools  may  be  mentioned 

two  movements  that  have  taken  place  during  this  century. 

The  first  is  the  Pestalozzi  movement,  and  the 

3.'!l«!fffi°"*  second  the  Herbart  movement.  Pestalozzi 
movement. 

(1746-1827)  put  the  teachings  of  Kousseau  to 
a  practical  test,  and  as  Germany  was  made  ripe  for  him 
through  the  interest  incited  by  Frederick  the  Great,  Kant, 
Francke  and  Goethe,  teachers  flocked  to  Pestalozzi's  school 
in  order  to  learn  his  method  and  imbibe  his  spirit.  With- 
out doubt  he  exerted  the  mightiest  influence  on  the  Volks- 
schools  of  Germany  of  any  man  since  the  time  of  Luther 
and  Francke.  It  was  said  of  him  that,  *'  Combining  pater- 
nal interest  with  maternal  fidelity,  he  himself  constituted 
bis  method."  To  him  every  child  had  a  germ  of  good  in 
him,  and  it  is  by  arousing,  stimulating,  and  strengthening 
that  which  is  noble,  that  true  education  is  attained.  He 
brought  the  child  to  nature,  taught  him  to  observe,  and 
made  observation  the  chief  means  of  instruction.  Ger- 
many adopted  these  ideas  from  him,  and  has  in  this  direc- 
tion obtained  the  greatest  help  from  him.  While  Pesta- 
lozzi was  erratic  and  lacked  system,  no  doubt  he  influenced 
pedagogical  thought  and  stimulated  pedagogical  study 
more  than  any  other  man  of  this  century.     His  real  service 


Development  since  the  Time  of  Frederick  the  Great.    45 

to  Germany  shows  itself  not  alone  in  the  schools,  but  also 
in  the  pedagogical  literature,  and  his  work  bears  increased 
fruitage  from  year  to  year. 

Quite  a  different  influence  has  Herbart  (1775-1841)  had, 
or  we  may  say  is  having.  He  was  the  first  to  formulate 
a  thorough  system  of  pedagogics.  In  a  direct  way  Her- 
bart has  not  influenced  education  in  Germany 
to  any  such  degree  as  Pestalozzi  has.  But  dur-  ^j^^'g' 
ing  the  last  three  or  four  decades  his  influence 
has  been  increasingly  felt  more  in  the  direction  of  bring- 
ing pedagogics  to  a  scientific  basis  than  of  practical  appli- 
cation to  the  schoolwork  of  to-day.  He  has  set  men  think- 
ing and  studying  principles  of  education  as  no  man  before 
him  has  done.  He  has  thrown  new  ideas  into  the  pedagogi- 
cal arena  which  have  led  teachers  of  all  kinds  and  grades 
to  seek  not  alone  better  methods,  but  the  .principles  which 
underlie  methods,  and  upon  which  the  education  of  the 
child  is  based.  Such  questions  as  the  necessity  and  possi- 
hility  of  education,  the  purpose  of  education,  many-sided- 
ness of  interest,  the  formal  steps,  the  historical  steps,  apper- 
ception, concentration,  correlation  of  studies,  have  awakened 
a  vast  amount  of  discussion  which  cannot  fail  to  bear 
fruit.  Herburt's  influence  is  of  a  character,  from  the  very 
nature  of  things,  that  makes  itself  felt,  not  so  much  by 
immediate  and  apparent  results  as  by  a  deepening  of  the 
foundations  of  pedagogical  truth;  and  though  the  work  is 
slow  and  often  imperceptible  in  growth,  it  is  nevertheless 
abiding,  and  is  destined  to  do  great  good. 

We  might  mention   a  third  influence,  that  of  Froebel 
and  his  kindergarten,  but  as  the  kindergarten  is  not  recog- 
nized as  a  part  of  the  educational  system  (see 
page  225),  but  rather  as  a  charitable  institution, 
it  may  not  be  mentioned  here  as  a  movement  affecting 
the  common  schools  of  Prussia. 

With  this  general  and  historical  outline  the  next  step 


46  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

will  be  to  describe  the  schools  as  they  now  exist.     Each 
subject  will  be  discussed  as  follows: 

1.  Description,  followed  by 

2.  Explanations  where  necessary. 

3.  Features  applicable  to  American  conditions. 

In  each  case  features  not  applicable  will  be  omitted,  the 
object  being  simply  to  draw  lessons  from  the  German 
schools.  The  grave  defects  which  exist  will  be  merely 
alluded  to,  as  the  object  of  the  work  is  instruction,  using 
for  illustrations  a  nation  that  has  nourished  public  schools 
for  upwards  of  500  years. 


Administration  of  the  Schools.  47 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ADMIXISTRATION  OF   THE  SCHOOLS. 

The  government  and  management  of  the  schools  is  under 
control  of  five  factors,  as  follows : 

I.  The  wliole  state,  under  the  direction  of  the 
minister  of  education  as  a  central  authority. 

II.  Tlie  province,  a  division  of  the  state  under 

the  direction    of    a   Provincial   KoUegium  or  The  itroviiice. 
school  board. 

III.  Tlie  (so-called)  government,  a  divisipn  of 

the  province  which  has  a  school  commission  mJ^t  f"^*"" 
over  its  territory. 

IV.  The  district,  into  which  the  governments 

are  divided.    These  are  under  the  charge  of  a  The  district, 
school-inspector. 

V.  The  local  school  hoard,  which  has   the   immediate 
charge  of  the  school. 

In  order  to  give  a  complete  picture  of  each  of 
these  authorities  we  shall  discuss   them  sepa-  „^JJ^ 
rately,  and  in  the  order  of  precedence.     We 
therefore  discuss,  first : 

The  Central  Authority. 

This  is  vested  in  the  Minister  for  Religious,  Educational, 

and  Medicinal  Affairs.    This  is  the  centre  of 

the  whole  system  and  the  court  of  final  resort  '^L"^"*" 
■^  of  edncatloii. 

in  educational  matters.     As  the  discussion  has 

to  do  with  the  schools  only,   for    convenience   the   title 

minister  of  culture  or  minister  of  education  will  be  used. 


48  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

The  work  of  the  oflSce  of  the  minister  of  culture  is  at 
present  divided  into  three  general  departments. 

I.  The  department  of  religious  affairs. 

II.  The  department  of  education. 

III.  The  department  of  medicine. 

We  have  to  do  with  the  second  department  only,  that  of 
education.  This  is  subdivided  into  two  departments,  one 
of  which  has  control  of  the  universities,  Gymnasia,  scien- 
tific institutions,  and  higher  and  technical  institutions  of 
learning ;  the  second  has  charge  of  the  lower  schools,  in- 
cluding teachers'  seminaries,  girls'  high  schools,  and  insti- 
tutions for  deaf  and  dumb,  blind,  idiots,  etc.  The  minis- 
ter has  oversight  of  the  examinations  of  schools 

General  of  all  grades,  including  the  universities  ;   dis- 

diities  of  the  •  f      x.     ^  ^    -       ^x.        i     •         t 

minister.        pensing  of  school  moneys,  fixing  the  salaries  of 

teachers,  ratifying  courses  of  study  for  all 
grades  of  schools,  regulation  of  private  schools,  pensioning 
of  teachers,  etc.,  the  details  of  which  will  appear  in  later 
chapters. 

Our  work  is  further  limited  to  the  second  division  of 
the  department  for  schools,  that  of  the  common  schools. 
The  minister  has  general  oversight  of  all  the  schools,  and 
the  scope  of  his  duty  in  this  direction  is  as  follows: 
special  duties  ^'  ^®  represents  the  schools  in  the  Prussian 
of  the  parliament  (Haus  der  Abgeordneten),  proposing 

minister  in     ^^^  \^^ffB  and  revisions  of  the  old  ones. 

connection  ,        r.  •  i 

with  the  com-      3.  Lays  plans  for  the  financial   support  of 

mon  schools,    schools. 

3.  Applies  the  finances  for  salaries,  pensions,  and  in 
other  directions  where  state  assistance  is  necessary. 

4.  Appoints  the  counsellors  and  members  of  the  provin- 
cial school  boards  and  other  school  officials,  excepting  those 
who  receive  their  appointment  directly  from  the  emperor. 

5.  Confers  titles  upon  teachers  and  other  persons  con- 
nected with  the  schools, 


Administration  of  the  Schools.  49 

6.  Is  the  court  of  final  appeal  iu  questions  concerning 
school  matters. 

7.  Renders  an  annual  report  of  his  department  to  the 
government. 

8.  Furnishes  a  monthly  statement  of  the  finances  of  his 
department  to  the  finance  minister. 

9.  Ratifies  the  appointment  of  the  teachers  in  the  teach- 
ers' seminaries. 

10.  Reappoints  teachers  that  have  been  dismissed  from 
service. 

11.  Fixes  the  normal  course  of  study  for  schools  of  differ- 
ent kinds,  and  has  general  oversight  of  the  examinations 
therein. 

Explanations. 

1.  While  the  minister  as  cabinet  officer  holds  his  office 
during  the  will  of  the  emperor,  and  must  necessarily  enter 
more  or  less  into  the  politics  of  the  government,  only  men 
of  high  character  have  ever  been  chosen,  and  these  have 
employed  all  of  the  great  opportunities  of  their  high  posi- 
tion for  the  benefit  of  the  schools.  They  have  always  been 
men  of  pedagogical  training,  men  eminent  iu  the  educa- 
tional world,  wiio  had  full  appreciation  of  the  wants  of  the 
schools.  The  manifold  duties  of  this  cabinet  officer,  em- 
bracing, as  we  have  seen,  not  only  the  department  of 
schools,  but  also  the  department  of  religious 

and   medicinal  affairs,  make  him  one  of  the  ^^^2^'* 
'  the  schools 

most  important  officials  in  Germany.    Many  of  may  have 

the  friends  of  education  feel  that  the  depart    f^"*"*® 

^  deportmeiits. 

ment  should  be  simply  for  schools,  and  should 

therefore  be  relieved  from  its  connection  with  religious 

and  medicinal  matters.     This  is  a  needed  reform  which 

will,  without  doubt,  be  brought  about  befor-^  many  years. 

2.  The  appointment  of  many  teachers  in  the  high 
schools  rests  with  the  minister,  while  the  great  mass  of 


50  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

teachers  are  appointed  by  other  authorities,  as  we  shall 
see  later. 

3.  Whenever  a  teacher  is  dismissed  from  service  it  is 
for  incapacity  or  immorality.  This,  however,  occurs  ex- 
tremely seldom,  and  only  upon  most  flagrant  abuses.  There- 
fore reinstatement  is  also  very  difficult,  only  being  possible 
through  consent  of  the  minister. 

4.  The  normal  course  is  the  minimum  of  what  the  state 
expects,  and  is  general  in  character.  It  admits  of  modi- 
fications to  suit  local  conditions. 

Application. 

What  are  there  in  these  conditions  that  are  applicable 
to  the  American  system  ?  Without  doubt  the  educational 
interests  would  be  vastly  furthered  if  there  were 
of*ed^^flo*n^  an  independent  department  of  education  with  a 
with  cabinet  cabinet  officer  at  its  head.  This  would  be  sim- 
h  ftd*'  **  *^'  ply  a  proper  recognition  of  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant interests  of  the  nation,  and  would  stim- 
ulate educational  activity,  unify  the  school  work,  and 
bring  the  schools  to  a  higher  plane.  This  does  not  mean 
that  this  department  should  bear  all  the  power  of  the  Prus- 
sian minister  of  education.  The  idea  of  the  German  gov- 
ernment is  a  central  one,  that  is  the  power  goes  out  from 
a  central  head  reaching  to  all  parts  of  the  empire,  and  this 
applies  equally  in  its  school  interests.  With  us  the  govern- 
ment is  "  of  the  people,  for  the  people,  and  by  the  people," 
therefore  to  the  people  of  each  locality  should  be  left  largely 
the  control  of  their  schools.  But  there  is  no  reason  why 
there  might  not  be  an  educational  department  with  general 
authority  and  powers,  the  same  as  there  is  a  post-office 
department,  an  interior  department,  an  agricultural  depart- 
ment, each  having  general  powers.  How  far  these  powers 
should  extend  is  not  here  to  specify.  At  least  all  of  the 
powers  now  possessed  should  be  retained,  and  in  addition 
thereto  we  may  note : 


Adminisf  ration  of  the  Schools.  61 

1.  The  right  to  fix  the  minimum  course  of  study  that 
every  child  in  the  land  must  pass  through.  This  would, 
of  course,  be  much  lower  than  many  sections  are  already 
pursuing,  but  would  be  within  the  possibilities  of  attain- 
ment eveiywhere.  This  course  could  be  elevated  from 
time  to  time  as  the  educational  conditions  improve.  Ko 
doubt  such  a  course  emanating  from  the  general  govern- 
ment would  unify  the  educational  interests  everywhere  and 
incite  many  of  the  states  to  greater  activity  in  educational 
matters. 

3.  In  order  to  enforce  the  above  there  should  be  a  fund 
at  the  disposal  of  the  department,  which  it  should  distrib- 
ute in  assisting  communities  which  are  unable  to  carry  on 
their  schools  without  help.  Appropriations  should  be 
made  for  this  department  the  same  as  they  are  made  for 
the  other  departments.  Congress  specifying  the  manner  of 
distributing. 

3.  At  present  it  is  a  matter  of  choice  on  the  part  of  the 
persons  of  whom  facts  are  obtained  whether  or  not  they 
give  them.  The  department  should  have  power  to  require 
the  necessary  statistics  for  which  it  may  ask. 

4.  There  should  be  the  power  to  fix  a  uniform  college 
entrance  requirement,  and  also  the  work  to  be  covered  for 
the  acquirement  of  each  degree.  This  is  a  very  much 
needed  reform,  and  such  a  central  educational  authority 
would  be  the  best  possible  means  of  carrying  it  out. 

These  are  but  few  of  the  powers  that  should  be  given  a 
national  department  of  education.  It  is  not  the  design 
here  to  suggest  a  plan  for  such  a  department,  but  rather 
to  call  attention  to  some  advantages  suggested  by  the  Ger- 
man system. 


52  School  Systems  of  Germany, 


OHAPTEE  VIII. 

THE  PEOVINCIAL  SCHOOL  AUTHORITY. 

The  kingdom  of  Prussia  is  divided  into  thirteen  prov- 
inces, and  these  constitute  thirteen  general  divisions  of 
Provincial  the  school  system.  Each  province  is  presided 
school  board,  over  by  a  president,  who  by  virtue  of  his  office 
is  president  of  the  provincial  school  board  (Schul-Kol- 
legium).  He  ranks  next  to  the  minister  of  culture  in 
educational  affairs.  With  him  are  associated  several  other 
royal  counsellors,  among  whom  are  usually  school-superin- 
tendents, principals,  and  other  pedagogically  trained  men. 
Thus  the  direction  of  the  schools  is  kept  in  the  hands  of  men 
of  the  highest  character  and  position,  together  with  those 
who  have  professional  knowledge  of  schools  and  know  how 
to  intelligently  direct  them.  The  members  of  this  board 
are  proposed  by  the  minister  of  culture  and  appointed  by 
the  king,  and  their  office  is  entirely  independent  of  politics. 
The  board  holds  regular  meetings  in  the  residence-city  of 
the  president.     Their  authority  and  duty  extend :  * 

1.  To  all  matters  in  general  connected  with  educational 
institutions  of  all  kinds. 

2.  The  examination  of  statutes  and  rules  connected  with 
the  inner  workings  of  the  schools,  such  as  daily  programs, 
courses  of  study,  etc. 

3.  Enacting  of  special  school  laws  for  their  province,  at- 
tending to  matters  of  discipline  among  the  teachers,  and 
seeing  that  the  schools  have  the  proper  appliances  for  work. 


*  "Pic  Volks-  und  die  MIttelschule." 


The  Provincial  School  Authority.  53 

4.  Examination  of  school-books,  deciding  when  changes 
are  necessary,  and  adopting  new  text-books. 

5.  Preparation  of  new  school-books,  which,  however, 
are  not  to  be  printed  until  approved  by  the  minister. 

G.  Organization  and  control  of  the  teachers'  seminaries, 
as  well  jis  institutions  for  the  further  instruction  of  teachers 
already  in  office ;  appointment  of  the  teachers  in  the  sem- 
inaries.* 

7.  Oversight  of  institutions  for  the  blind,  deaf,  and 
dumb,  idiots,  etc. 

8.  In  Berlin  they  have  also  the  direction  of  girls' 
higher  schools,  common  and  private  schools,  which  in  all 
other  parts  of  the  kingdom  come  under  the  control  of  the 
governments. 

9.  Oversight  of  the  high  schools,  that  is,  such  as  prepare 
for  the  university  ;  also  the  appointment,  promotion, 
discipline,  suspension  and  dismissal  of  teachere  in  the 
same.  With  respect  to  the  principals  and  head-teachers, 
their  appointments  must  be  confirmed  by  the  minister. 

10.  They  have  the  direction  of  the  school  finances  of 
the  province,  fixing  the  salaries  of  teachers  in  the  higher 
schools,  and  providing  funds  for  the  support  of  the  whole 
school  system. 

11.  They  are  directly  subject  to  the  minister,  and  must 
render  him  a  semi-annual  report  with  reference  to  certain 
facts,  and  a  full  annual  report  concerning  the  schools. 

While  the  provincial  boards  must  follow  the  general  re- 
quirements of  the  school  law,  freedom  is  allowed  them  in 
details  which  may  have  force  in  their  particular  locality. 
Thus  in  a  farming-district,  a  mining-district,  or  a  manu- 
facturing-district the  course  of  study,  the  time  of  vacations, 
and  other  school  interests  may  be  modified  so  as  to  do  the 
most  good  to  the  inhabitants  of  that  district. 

•  Ratified  br  the  minister. 


54  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

From  time  to  time  schoolmen  of  the  province  are  invited 
before  them  to  enter  into  their  counsels  and 
and  school-  give  expression  as  to  the  wants  of  the  schools, 
men  keep  in  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  practical,  active 
^^^  '  teachers.     Thus  the  two  bodies,  the  school  au- 

thorities and  the  school  instructors,  are  kept  in  touch  with 
each  other,  and  the  best  interests  of  their  common  charge, 
the  schools,  are  furthered. 

The  province  somcAvhat  corresponds  with  our  state,  and 
the  provincial  Schul-Kollegium  with  our  state  board  of 
state  board  education,  where  it  exists.  There  has  been  a 
of  education,  long-felt  want  among  schoolmen  in  America  for 
the  universal  adoption  of  a  state  board  of  education.  "Where 
such  boards  exist  their  powers  should  be  increased,  and 
where  they  do  not  exist,  they  should  be  established.  The 
state  board  should  be  clothed  with  authority  to  direct  all 
of  the  school  interests  in  the  state  under  the  executive 
management  and  leadership  .of  the  state  superintendent 
of  schools,  who  should  be  ex-ojjicio  president  of  the  board. 
Its  members  should  be  chosen  for  life,  or  at  least  for  long 
periods,  entirely  without  regard  to  politics,  and  should 
always  be  men  of  high  character,  ability,  and 
of  New  York  possessing  a  knowledge  of  the  wants  of  the 
state  Regents  schools.  The  eflSciency  and  character  of  the 
an  examp  e.  jjgggjj|.g  q^  ^j^g  State  of  New  York  is  an  illustra- 
tive example  of  what  a  state  board  of  education  should  be, 
and  their  noble  work  furnishes  a  standard  which  might  well 
be  followed  as  an  ideal. 


The  Governments  (Regierungen).  56 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  GOVERNMENTS    (rEGIERUNGEN). 

The  third  link  in  the  chain  of  the  Prussian  school  sys- 
tem is  the  government.  The  provinces  are  divided  for 
political  purposes  into  royal  divisions  called  governments. 
In  the  smaller  provinces  the  government  and  the  province 
are  territorially  the  same ;  thus  the  province  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein  has  but  one  government,  while  the  province  of 
Hanover  has  six.  The  total  number  of  royal  governments 
in  the  thirteen  provinces  is  thirty-six,  each  of  which  has  a 
school  board  also.  While  the  work  of  the  provincial  school 
board  has  chiefly  to  do  with  the  high  schools, 
that  of  the  government  boards  has  to  do  with  board  of  the 
the  common  schools.  The  president  of  the  ^oy»^ 
royal  government  is  ex-officio  president  of  the 
school  board.  There  are  six  other  members,  two  of  whom 
are  appointed  by  the  king  for  life  and  four  are  chosen  by 
the  provincial  school  board  for  a  period  of  six  years,  two 
being  chosen  once  in  every  three  years.  Each  of  these 
members  has  an  alternate  who  is  chosen  in  the  same  way 
and  who  acts  for  him  in  his  absence.  They  are  residents 
of  the  district,  and  must  be  men  of  high  character  who  are 
acquainted  with  the  needs  of  the  schools.  They  receive 
no  salary,  but  are  allowed  a  small  sum  per  day  for  actual 
time  given,  and  also  traveling  expenses.  Their  duties  are 
as  follows : 

1.  The  appointment  of  the  teachers  of  the  common 
schools,  that  is,  such  as  are  appointed  directly  by  the  8tat«, 


56  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

and  the  confirmation  of  those  appointed  by  other  authority 
D  ti  of  the  (^l^^^rch,  patron,  local  board,  etc.).  (See 
government  page  169.)  They  also  have  charge  of  the  exam- 
board,  ination  of  all  teachers. 

2.  Oversight  of  the  efficiency,  faithfulness  and  moral 
bearing  of  the  teachers.  They  also  grant  leave  of  absence 
to  the  teachers. 

3.  Direction  and  oversight  of  all  public  and  private 
schools,  together  with  institutions  of  mercy. 

4.  Especial  direction  of  the  entire  elementary  school 
system. 

5.  Direction  of  the  external  matters  of  the  schools,  to- 
gether with  the  regulation  of  school  tuition  where  it  is 
charged. 

6.  Oversight  of  all  institutions  of  a  literary  character 
that  may  not  be  included  in  the  above. 

7.  Establishment  of  school  districts  as  the  wants  of  com- 
munities may  demand. 

8.  Decide  upon  text-books  used  in  the  common  schools, 
approve  school  programs,  and  attend  to  other  duties  for 
the  common  schools  corresponding  to  those  of  the  provin- 
cial board  for  the  higher  schools. 

They  are  subordinate  to  the  provincial  board,  with  whom 
they  work  in  harmony,  making  the  necessary  reports,  and 
advising  with  them  in  school  matters.  They  come  more 
directly  in  contact  with  the  teachers  and  school  interests 
than  does  the  provincial  board.  The  teachers'  training- 
schools  are  directly  under  their  control,  and  they  must 
examine  the  same,  and  see  to  the  appointment  of  the 
graduates  to  provisional  positions.  After  the  period  of 
probation  is  over  they  make  a  further  examination  of  the 
candidates,  after  which  permanent  places  are  given  them. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  school  board  to  inform  themselves  as 
to  the  success  of  the  teacher  during  this  probation  and  to 
decide  whether  it  is  sufficient  to  warrant  his  being  clothed 


The  Governments  {Regierungen).  57 

with  full  authority  as  a  teacher.  Thus  abundant  safe- 
guards are  placed  around  this  important  office  to  prevent 
unworthy  and  incapable  persons  from  being  permanently 
admitted  to  it;  but  when  all  the  conditions  are  met,  the 
state  protects  and  takes  care  of  those  whom  it  has  ad- 
mitted. This  final  recognition  can  only  take  place  after 
the  teacher  is  twenty-four  years  of  age. 


5S  School  Systems  of  Cermany, 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE   DISTRICT    (KREIS). 

Each  government  is  again  divided  into  districts  over 
which  are  placed  school-inspectors.  There  are  (1893)  298 
district-inspectors  who  devote  all  of  their  time  to  the 
schools,  they  being  the  direct  agents  of  the  school  boards 
for  looking  after  the  schools.  They  are  always  profes- 
sional teachers  who  have  had  long  years  of  successful  ex- 
perience and  who  have  passed  all  the  necessary  examina- 
tions which  lead  up  to  this  position  (see  page  161),  and  are 
appointed  by  the  minister  for  life. 

There  is  also  a  school  board  or  commission  for  the  dis- 
trict, similarly  constituted  as  the  higher  school  boards,  the 
The  district  district-inspectors,  however,  being  members  also, 
school  boards.  As  their  authority  extends  over  only  a  compara- 
tively small  territory,  they  are  enabled  to  come  into  still 
closer  contact  with  the  schools.  They  have  control  and 
oversight  of  the  following  matters  in  the  common  schools: 

1.  The  erection  and  organization  of  schools. 

2.  The  fixing  of  boundary  lines  of  school  districts  and 
the  decision  as  to  where  school  taxes  are  to  be  paid,  thus 
giving  each  school  its  proper  support. 

3.  The  decision  as  to  what  property  is  liable  to  school 
tax. 

4.  Determining  the  amount  of  teachers'  salaries,  and 
providing  for  the  same. 

0.  Oversight  of  pensions. 

6.  Direct  oversight  of  the  local  school  committee  and 
their  management  of  the  individual  schools. 


The  District  (Kreis),  59 

y.  The  enforcement  of  compulsory  education  and  the 
decision  of  school  questions  that  may  arise  from  time  to 
time. 

In  cities  there  is  a  general  school  board  corresponding  to 
the  above-mentioned  district  board.  The  number  of  mem- 
bers depends  upon  the  size  of  the  city.  There  compositioii 
are  one  or  two  school-inspectors,  from  one  to  ^0^^,°^ 
six  members  of  the  royal  city  officials,  who  are  citie*. 
named  by  the  mayor,  an  equal  number  of  members  of  the 
common  council,  the  same  number  of  citizens,  and  also  of 
pastors.  There  are  also  one  to  three  of  the  city  principals 
appointed  by  the  mayor  to  this  board,  and  if  there  are 
several  religious  confessions  each  must  have  a  representa- 
tive. Thus  all  classes  have  a  representation  in  this  board — 
the  school-inspectors,  the  royal  government,  the  city,  the 
citizens,  the  Church,  and  the  teachers.  "  The  city  com- 
prises a  district,  or,  if  large,  several  districts.  For  example, 
in  Berlin  there  are  ten  districts,  each  having  an  inspector 
of  schools.  Great  care  is  exercised  in  the  selection  of  men 
to  act  in  the  capacity  of  members  of  the  school  board. 
They  are  appointed  for  periods  of  six  years,  and  are  gener- 
ally re-elected  if  they  show  their  interest  and  efficiency, 
and  desire  to  continue  in  office. 

This  indicates  the  general  composition  of  the  district 
board  and  its  duties,  though  the  control  of  schools  in  this 
respect  varies  in  different  sections  of  the  kingdom. 

There  is  no  general  regulation  which  applies  equally 
everywhere,  though  the  above  shows  the  general  condition 
of  things.  It  is  very  difficult  to  make  a  general  statement 
which  shall  apply  everyAvhere.  For  instance,  in  the  matter 
of  school  inspection,  in  some  districts  there  are  inspectors 
who  devote  their  whole  time  to  the  interests  of  the  schools, 
while  in  many  other  cases  the  oversight  of  the  schools  is 
left  to  local  inspectors,  generally  pastoTs.  Of  the  former 
there  are,  as  we  have  seen,  298  pedagogically  trained  men 


60  School  Systems  of  Gerntany. 

who  give  all  their  time  to  the  schools,  each  having  about 
number  of  ^^^  classes  to  inspect,  and  of  the  latter  there  are 
school-  925,  whose  work  extends  only  to  one  or  more 

inspectors,  schools,  and  who  perform  these  duties  simply  as 
a  secondary  office. 

The  pedagogical  training  that  is  required  of  the  latter 
consists  of  a  six- weeks'  summer  course  in  a  teachei-s'  seminary 
before  entering  upon  a  pastorate.  In  this  course  they  hear 
lectures  on  teaching,  visit  classes  in  the  seminary,  and  seek 
to  gather  some  knowledge  of  school  law  and  school  manage- 
Fedaeoeicai  ^^^^*  ^^  course  but  little  can  be  done  in  so 
traininff  of  short  a  time,  and  it  is  generally  regarded  by 
the  pastors.  j^Qg^  candidates  in  the  light  of  a  vacation.  In 
some  cases  a  candidate  of  theology,  in  anticipation  of  this 
duty,  which  is  usually  imposed  upon  him,  hears  lectures 
on  pedagogy  in  the  university;  but  of  practical  or  theo- 
retical knowledge  of  pedagogy  but  little  can  be  claimed  for 
the  pastors.  In  many  small  places  the  pastor,  aside  from 
the  teacher,  is  the  only  one  capable  of  attending  to  im- 
mediate questions  which  arise,  such  as  granting  leave  of 
absence  from  school,  complaints  or  disputes,  and  other  mat- 
ters that  cannot  be  referred  to  the  district-inspector,  who 
perhaps  lives  some  distance  away.  The  teachers  generally 
wish  for  the  abolition  of  the  local  inspection  and  the  uni- 
versal establishment  of  district-inspection,  with  the  assign- 
ment of  the  local  duties  necessary  to  be  performed  by  some 
one  at  hand  to  the  head-teacher  of  each  place,  and  matters 
Teachers  of  dispute  in  which  the  teacher  is  involved  to 
desire  the  be  referred  to  the  local  school  board.  Thus 
Church  would  be  abolished  a  relic  of  authority  of  the 

authority.  Church  over  the  schools  which  has  existed  for 
centuries.  Only  religious  instruction  in  the  schools  would 
still  remain  under  the  inspection  of  the  pastors  of  the  re- 
spective Churches,  an  arrangement  which  all  parties  agree 
should  not  be  disturbed;   but  the  general  inspection  of 


The  District  {Kreis),  61 

schools  should  be  in  the  hands  of  a  competent,  profession- 
ally trained  pedagogue,  an  important  and  vital  matter  for 
the  success  of  the  schools.  Wherever  such  school-inspect- 
ors have  been  installed,  the  results  have  proved  the  wisdom 
of  the  system.  The  permanency  of  their  appointments 
gives  a  stability  and  uniformity  to  the  school  policy.  No 
doubt  the  efficiency  of  the  German  schools  is  ^gYmanency 
owing  largely  to  the  permanence  with  which  all  of  aii  school 
school  officers,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  o^'i^i^*!*- 
hold  their  positions,  and  those  nations  that  have  most 
closely  copied  Germany  in  this  respect  have  reached  the 
best  results  in  educational  development. 


School  Systems  of  Germany, 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE   LOCAL  BOARD. 

There  now  remains  the  discussion  of  the  last  of  the  list 
of  the  school  authorities — that  of  the  local  school  board. 
Each  school,  whether  it  be  in  the  large  city  or  whether  it 
be  in  the  country,  has  a  local  board  that  stands  in  closest 
Trustees  for  relations  to  it.  Each  city,  we  have  seen,  has  a 
each  school,  school  board  that  manages  the  school  interests 
in  general.  This  board  or  school  deputation  chooses  a 
special  board  of  trustees  for  each  school. 

The  principal  of  the  school  must  be  one  of  the  members, 
and  citizens  who  reside  within  the  limits  of  the  school  dis- 
trict comprise  the  remainder.  These  trustees  are  chosen 
for  three  years,  and  have  the  power  to  choose  their  own 
members  after  the  manner  of  college  boards  of  trustees  with 
us,  confirmation  by  the  general  board  being  necessary.  In 
country  places  and  villages  the  mayor  is  chairman  of  these 
trustees,  and  the  other  members  are  chosen  from  the  citi- 
zens. The  management  of  the  country  scJiools,  however, 
rests  with  vastly  different  bodies  under  different  circum- 

/.  »»*  „-...4-*„  stances.  In  some  cases  it  rests  Avith  the  so-called 
Great  variety 

of  local  patron,  who  owns  a  large  estate  and  must  sup- 

authorities.  pQj.^  ^jjg  school  for  the  children  of  his  employes, 
and  because  of  this  support  he  has  many  reserved  rights, 
such  as  naming  the  teacher,  modifications  of  the  school 
course,  hours  in  which  the  school  shall  be  held,  time  of  va- 
cations, etc.,  thus  suiting  tlie  school  to  the  wants  and  con- 
ditions of  his  particular  people.  In  others  it  rests  with  a 
Church  organization  that  has  from  time  immemorial  had 


The  Local  Board.  68 

the  direction  and  support  of  a  school,  and  because  of  this, 
the  rights  of  the  Church  are  still  respected.  In  others — 
and  this  includes  most  cases — it  rests  with  the  community 
through  its  representatives.  In  short,  we  may  say  it  be- 
longs to  the  interested  parties  to  direct  their  own  school 
within  certain  limits.  Their  duties  do  not  apply  to  the  in- 
ternal afifairs  of  the  school,  as  the  local  trustees  cannot 
interfere  with  the  teacher,  with  the  course  of  study,  with 
school-books,  and  with  other  matters  which  have  to  do  with 
the  conduct  of  the  school.  These  rest,  as  we  have  seen, 
with  higher  boards.  They  must  see  to  repairs,  supplies, 
enforcement  of  regular  attendance,  see  that  all  the  chil- 
dren have  entered  school,  and  act  as  the  direct  agents  to 
whom  parents  may  complain,  and  to  whom  teachers  may 
turn  for  the  enforcement  of  law.  In  the  country  places 
they  have  a  voice  in  the  choice  of  teachers,  as  we  shall  see 
in  a  later  chapter.     (See  page    62.) 

In  small  places  where  there  is  usually  only  one  pastor, 
said  pastor  always  has  a  seat  in  the  local  board  of  trustees. 

We  may  give  a  general  view  of  the  Prussian  school  au- 
thorities by  the  following  schedule : 

I.  The  State  or  Kingdom :  Minister  of  Education,  during 
the  will  of  the  king;  general  direction  of  all  educational 
affairs. 

U.  The  Province  — 13  in  number:  Provincial  school 
board  (Provincial  Schul-Kollegium) ,  appointed  by  the 
minister  and  confirmed  by  the  king;  general  oversight  of 
the  schools  of  the  province;  especial  care  of  the  high 
schools. 

III.  The  Government  (Regierung)  —  36  in  number; 
School  board  chosen  for  6  years;  especial  oversight  of  the 
common  schools;  training  and  appointment  of  teachers  for 
the  same. 

IV.  The  District  (Kreis) :  School  board  representing 
various  interests,  clioscn  for  6  years;  direct  authority  in 


61:  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

the  common  and  private  schools,  their  will  being  carried 
out  by  298  district  inspectors  and  925  local  inspectors. 

V.  The  Local  Board  (Schulvorstand) .  For  each  sepa- 
rate school  chosen,  from  the  citizens  for  3  years;  special 
oversight  of  the  external  matters,  school  repairs,  compul- 
sory education,  etc. 

We  are  now  ready  to  consider  what  there  is  in  this  sys- 
tem that  could  be  applied  with  advantage  to  the  American 
schools. 

There  is  a  harmonious  articulation  between  the  various 
boards,  each  having  its  duties,  and  each  subordinate  board 
carries  out  the  purpose  and  plan  of  the  authority  above  it. 
We  have  similar  political  divisions,  and  a  similar  school 
organization  would  doubtless  be  a  great  improvement. 
The  plan  of  the  organization  would  be  as  follows : 

I.  The  central  school  authority  of  the  land  under  a 
cabinet  officer  with  general  powers,  as  we  have  already 
discussed.     (See  page    50.) 

II.  The  State. — With  the  vastly  diverse  interests  of  so 
great  a  country,  and  with  the  practical  independence  of 
the  states,   each  state  must  have  an  independent  school 

system.  The  general  aim  of  the  schools,  how- 
to  Mve  its  ever,  should  be  determined  by  the  national 
own  sciiooi  school  authority,  which,  while  it  seeks  to  main- 
ays  em.  ^^^  ^  unity  of  school  purpose  for  the  whole 
land,  does  not  interfere  with  the  rights  of  the  state  to  con- 
trol its  own  affairs.  Therefore  each  state,  as  at  present, 
should  have  its  own  school  system.  There  should  be  a 
state  board  of  education  with  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  as  ex-officio  chairman,  and  the  governor  as  ex- 
officio  member.  The  superintendent  should  be  the  presi- 
dent of  the  board  instead  of  the  governor,  as  is  the  case  in 
Prussia,  because  the  governor  with  us  is  a  political  officer 
elected  for  a  short  period,  while  the  former  we  would  have 
independent  of  politics  and  chosen  for  at  least  six  years. 


The  Local  Board.  65 

He  could  thus  carry  out  a  conservative  and  yet  progressive 
policy,  unfettered  by  political  conditions  and  absolutely 
free  to  serve  the  best  interests  of  the  schools.  It  goes 
without  saying  that  he  should  be  pedagogically  trained  and 
an  experienced  teacher. 

The  other  members  of  the  board  should  also  be  chosen 
for  not  less  than  six  years  and  should  consist  of  a  fair  pro- 
portion of  teachers.     This  board  should  have  xhe  state 

the  power  to  elect  the  state  superintendent,  not  *oard  of 

•1    '-  •,  ,  J      1        i.      education  to 

necessarily  from  its  own  number,  and  also  to  ^j^^.^  g^^^g 

fill  vacancies  in  its  number.  If  a  safeguard  to  •nperintend- 
its  action  in  the  election  of  the  superintendent  ^^' 
or  its  members  is  required,  confirmation  by  the  state  senate 
would  furnish  it.  There  is  abundant  proof  of  the  safety 
of  trusting  the  interests  of  the  schools  to  a  board  thus  con- 
stituted. The  tendency  of  such  a  board  would  be  to  re- 
elect an  eflficient  superintendent,  thereby  assuring  a  stable 
management  of  the  school  interests. 

One  needs  only  to  mention  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  and  the  trustees  of  colleges  everywhere, 
which  are  constituted  on  a  similar  plan,  to  find  an  illus- 
tration of  >vise,  conservative,  pure,  and  efficient  government 
of  school  interests. 

This  school  board  should  have  general  oversight  of  all 
school  interests  of  the  state  from  the  primary  school  to  the 
university,  and  especial  care  of  the  higher  schools,  j^^yg,  „f 
It  should  fix  the  course  of  study,  in  harmony,  state  board 
however,  with  the  minimum  requirements  of  "'  education, 
the  national  authority,  but  with  special  modifications  to 
meet  the  conditions  of  the  state.  It  should  control  and 
distribute  tlie  state  school  moneys,  have  tlie  direction  of 
the  normal  schools,  appointment  of  teachers  therein,  or  at 
least  confirmation  when  a  local  board  has  appointed  them, 
fixing  of  teachers'  qualifications,  and  having  oversight  of 
the  examinations  of  teachers,  ^rantin^  life  certificates  under 


66  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

proper  limitations,  appointment  of  professors  and  teachers 
in  purely  state  institutions,  such  as  state  universities,  insti- 
tutions for  the  unfortunate,  etc. 

The  agent  or  executive  officer  of  the  board  would  natur- 
ally be  the  state  superintendent,  whose  duty  it  would  bo 
to  carry  out  the  details  of  the  above  and  perform  such 
other  duties  as  usually  fall  upon  an  executive  officer.  He 
should  be  removable  for  inefficiency  or  immorality  at  any 
time  by  a  two  thirds  vote  of  the  board. 

One  difficulty  of  this  plan  is  not  yet  met,  and  that  is 
the  manner  of  choosing  the  first  board,  which  once  chosen 
shall  have  the  power  to  perpetuate  its  existence.  It 
should  be  constituted  without  reference  to  political  bias, 
which,  however,  is  difficult  to  do  under  existing  condi- 
tions. Probably  the  best  means  of  making  the  first  ap- 
pointment of  school  boards  would  be  the  judges  of  the 
highest  court.  Once  properly  established  there  would  be 
no  difficulty  in  maintaining  a  school  board  of  highest  char- 
acter and  integrity. 

III.  The  County  is  the  next  political  division,  and  it 
should  be  the  next  division  for  educational  purposes.  It 
should  have  a  school  board  whose  authority  would  extend 
over  the  whole  county,  but  in  many  cases  there  would 
County  school  necessarily  be  divisions  of  the  county  into  dis- 
boardandits  tricts  for  school-inspection  purposes.  This 
duties.  board  should  be  constituted  in  the  same  way  and 

on  the  same  basis  as  the  state  board.  It  should  appoint 
as  many  inspectors  or  county  superintendents  as  are  neces- 
sary,— at  least  one  for  each  fifty  schools, — who  also  should 
have  a  seat  in  the  school  board.  To  this  board  should  be 
committed  the  examination  and  licensing  of  the  teachers  in 
accord  with  the  instnictions  of  the  state  board,  the  adoption 
of  text-books,  and  the  general  direction  of  the  schools  of 
the  county. 

The  adopting  of  text-books  for  a  whole  state  is  objection- 


The  Local  Board.  67 

able  in  that  it  destroys  healthy  competition  on  the  part  of 
authors  and  text-book  publishers.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  should  be  uniformity  throughout  a  ^ven  district,  and 
the  county  is  sufficiently  large  to  satisfy  both  sides  of  the 
question. 

IV.  Finally,  there  should  be  a  township  school  board 
also  chosen  in  the  same  way,  or  in  case  of  a  city  there 
should  be  a  special  board  for  it  corresponding  to  Town  school 
the  town  board.     This  board  should  appoint  duties. 

the  teachers  for  the  whole  township  or  city ;  attend  to  the 
finances,  such  as  making  up  of  the  budget,  paying  of 
teachers,  and  other  expenses;  see  to  the  construction  of 
new  buildings  or  extraordinary  repairs  on  old  ones;  decide 
upon  the  district  boundaries;  make  necessary  regulations 
for  school  attendance,  vacations,  etc. ;  and  in  general  carry 
forward  the  work  of  the  school  so  far  as  its  general 
external  matters  are  concerned.  They  should  consult  the 
judgment  of  the  district-inspector,  who  also  must  be  an 
experienced  teacher,  in  matters  concerning  the  appoint- 
ment of  teachers,  the  discipline  and  efficiency  of  the  school, 
and  should  not  be  allowed  to  discharge  a  teacher  except 
for  sufficient  cause.  Their  powers  within  the  schoolroom 
should  be  limited,  the  teacher  being  subordinate  to  the 
school-inspector  in  matters  of  method,  course  of  study, 
discipline,  and  other  questions  which  require  an  educational 
expert. 

V.  The  town  board  should  appoint  for  each  school  a  local 
committee  wliose  duty  it  is  to  look  after  the  immediate  in- 
terests of  the  school.     This  committee  should  _     , 

ijoch  coin- 
have  absolutely  no  authority  over  the  teacher  mittee  for 

or  the  internal  affairs  of  the  school.      They  ***^*'  school. 

should  see   to  repairs,   supplies,   and   contingent   needs; 

should  see  that  the  school  building  is  properly  cared  for  so 

as  to  conduce  to  the  comfort  and  health  of  teachers  and 

pupils;  should  attend  to  the  enforcement  of  the  law  rQ- 


68  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

garding  school  attendance ;  and  should  be  the  immediate 
authority  to  whom  appeal  may  be  made  by  teachers  or 
parents  in  cases  of  dispute,  and  other  matters  that  need 
prompt  attention. 

This  plan  is  a  decided  modification  of  the  German  plan 
in  some  respects,  and  better  suited  to  our  American  insti- 
tutions.    For  example,  the  German  plan  is  bu- 
tetween  tMs  reaucratic,  keeping  the  most  important  school 
and  the  matters  in  the  hands  of  a  general  authority, 

German  p  .  ^^j^^jg  |.|j^g  maintains  the  right  of  each  locality 
to  control  the  direct  interests  of  its  own  schools.  The  idea 
of  locality,  however,  is  extended  for  most  matters  to  in- 
clude the  township,  thereby  securing  a  wider  choice  from 
which  to  choose  the  governing  body  and  in  a  measure  cen- 
tralizing the  school  interests  of  the  township.  Such  cen- 
tralization would  subserve  the  best  interests  of  the  schools, 
just  as  the  uniting  of  all  the  schools  in  a  city  under  one 
system  is  far  better  than  to  allow  each  school  to  be  inde- 
pendent. It  centralizes  enough  to  give  a  unity  to  the 
schools  of  a  locality  without  trespassing  upon  the  rights  of 
those  most  interested,  the  parents,  to  govern  their  own 
schools.  This  would  cause  the  abandonment  of  many 
Advantages  cross-roads'  scliools  that  ought  to  be  abandoned, 
of  the  town-  the  establishment  of  schools  of  a  higher  grade 
ship  pi-an.  centrally  located  to  which  children  of  the  lower 
gi'ade  schools  would  be  promoted,  thereby  giving  better 
school  advantages  at  a  smaller  expense.  Inasmuch  as  the 
appointment  of  all  teachers  rests  with  the  town  board, 
more  suitable  teachers  would  be  chosen  for  each  particular 
school,  and  it  would  be  easy  to  establish  a  system  of  pro- 
motion of  teachers  based  upon  scholarship,  efficiency  and 
experience.  This  would  tend  to  greater  stability  of  teach- 
ers' positions  as  well  as  continuity  of  school-work.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  training  and  licensing  of  teachers,  and  the 
course  of  study,  are  matters  of  general  interest,  and  must 


The  Local  Board.  69 

therefore  control  a  wider  territory  and  be  committed  to  a 
more  extended  autliority. 

Again,  the  establishment  of  a  local  committee  who  are 
at  hand  for  immediate  need,  who  have  control  of  the  ma- 
terial interests,  and  yet  who  may  not  interfere  with  the 
internal  affairs,  of  the  school,  is  a  necessary  and  wise  part 
of  the  system.  This  divides  the  intellectual  from  the  ma- 
terial interests,  placing  each  under  a  special  authority, 
and  each  authority  having  its  own  duties  clearly  defined. 

In  all  of  the  school  boards, — state,  county,  and  town, — 
not  including  the  local  trustees,  there  should  be  a  fair 
proportion  of  teachers.  Without  doubt  the  Teachers  in 
presence  in  the  school  board  of  experienced  school  boards, 
men,  who  by  long  and  active  work  in  the  schoolroom  have 
become  thoroughly  acquainted  with  educational  questions, 
would  not  fail  to  have  a  salutary  influence.  There  are 
many  matters  coming  within  the  duties  of  these  boards  that 
teachers  best  of  all  know  how  to  meet  and  to  answer. 
Hence  the  wisdom  of  their  selection  to  school  boards. 

In  this  connection  we  may  mention  two  ends  to  be 
sought  in  the  reform  of  the  American  school  system,  and 
these  are  imperatively  necessary  for  the  success  and  further 
development  of  the  schools. 

These  are  (1)  greater  permanency  in  office  of  school 

officials  and  school-teachers,  thereby  giving  greater  stability 

to  the  work  in  the  schools ;  and  (2)  the  abso-  .j^^       ^ 

lute  divorcement  of  all  school  interests  from  ends  neces- 

politics.     No  great  progress  can  be  made  until  f"^  '"*' 
\  ,  *'  ,  1     ,  improvement 

these  reforms  are  made,  and  there  is  a  great  ©f  the 

danger  of  retrogression  in  the  schools  if  present  »ct«>i*« 

abuses  are  not  corrected.     The  faithful  carrying  out  of  the 

plan  here  sketched,  no  attempt  having  been  made  to  give 

details  or  specify  particulars,  would  effectually  secure  the 

result  above  indicated  and  wished  for  by  all  friends  of  the 

schools. 


70  School  Systems  of  Germany. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


COMPULSORY   EDUCATION. 


We  have  seen  that  Luther  nearly  four  hundred  years 
ago  urged  that  parents  should  be  compelled  to  send  their 
children  regularly  to  school ;  that  in  Weimar  in  1619  the 
Historical,  first  compulsory  law  for  a  whole  state  was  en- 
acted; that  Duke  Ernst  of  Gotha  in  1640  made  a  similar 
regulation  for  his  subjects;  that  Wilrtemberg  and  other 
provinces  followed,  until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury ^1787)  witnessed  a  stringent  compulsory  law  which 
was  everywhere  quite  efficient,  in  country  districts  as  well 
as  in  the  cities;  and  finally,  that  Prassia  brought  the 
theory  to  a  practical  solution.     (See  page  36.) 

In  all  of  these  cases  two  fundamental  principles  were 
laid  down:  1.  That  the  child  must  attend  school  every  day 
that  it  is  in  session  throughout  the  entire  year.  2.  That 
parents  shall  be  held  responsible  for  such  attendance.  To 
a  strict  adherence  to  these  two  principles  the  success  of 
compulsory  education  in  Prussia  is  entirely  due,  and  the 
success  of  compulsory  education  has  contributed  largely  to 
the  success  of  the  schools,  for  there  can  be  no  successful 
school-work  when  school  attendance  is  irregular.  Other 
German  states  have  united  with  Prussia  in  laws  requiring 
regular  attendance  at  school,  until  the  practice  is  almost 
universal  in  all  Germany. 

The  idea  of  regular  attendance  at  school  as  soon  as  the 
child  is  six  years  of  age,  and  until  the  fourteenth  year  is 


Compulsory  Education.  71 

reached,  or  the  requirements  of  the  law  are  satisfied,  i8 
so  thoroughly  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  par-  ng-^gi. 
ents  and  children,  and  so  incorporated  into  their  attendance 
lives,  that  no  one  thinks  of  such  a  thing  a.s  *  *^"** 
staying  away  from  school  excepting  for  illness.  And  in 
case  of  illness,  when  absence  is  unavoidable  and  no  punish- 
ment can  follow,  even  then  deprivation  of  school  privileges 
is  most  sincerely  deplored.  We  have  heard  of  repeated 
instances  of  children  being  veiy  unhappy  because  they 
were  obliged  to  stay  at  home,  and  one  may  be  sure  that  no 
trivial  ailment  would  be  sufficient  to  keep  a  child  out  of 
school.  Indeed,  many  teachers  assert  that  regular  attend- 
ance is  so  thoroughly  established,  and  so  fully  in  accord 
with  the  sentiment  of  everybody,  that  even  if  there  were 
no  law  requiring  it  parents  would  still  continue  to  keep 
their  children  regularly  at  school. 

As  an  example  of  the  efficiency  of  the  present  compulsory 
law  we  give  the  following  statistics  for  the  royal  govern- 
mental district  of  Aachen,  which  also  show  the  improve- 
ment in  the  workings  of  the  law:  In  1824  the 
number  of  children  of  school  age  was  GG,611.   efficiency 
Of  these  32,471,  or  49  per  cent,  did  not  attend   of  the  law 
school.      In  1891  the  number  of  children  of  ^  '*'*''''*°- 
school  age  was  94,471.    Of  these  there  were  only  7  children 
who  did  not  attend  school  (excepting,  of  course,  those  who 
were  excused  for  physical  or  mental  disability) . 

One  could  hardly  expect  a  more  perfect  enforcement  of 
law  than  this  indicates.  The  fact,  however,  that  parents 
are  so  thoroughly  in  sympathy  with  the  idea  makes  the 
enforcement  of  the  law  a  comparatively  easy  matter.  An- 
other fact  may  be  mentioned  to  show  the  general  efficiency 
of  compulsory  education  in  Prussia,  and  that  is  in  1893 
only  about  one  half  of  one  per  cent  of  the  men  who  were 
received  into  the  army  were  illiterate. 

Children  under  thirteen  years  of  age  cannot  be  employed 


72  School  Systems  of  Germany, 

in  factories,  nor  even  then  without  they  have  completed 
the  school  requirements.* 

The  general  workings  of  the  compulsory  law  are  as 
follows : 

1.  Careful  record  of  all  births  is  kept,  so  that  the  age 
of  each  child  in  the  parish  is  known. 

2.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  police,  who  take  the  census,  to 
furnish  the  school  board  a  complete  list  of  all  children  who 
Workines  of  ^^^'^  become  of  school  age,  as  well  as  any  that 
the  compni-  may  have  moved  into  the  school  district.  This 
sory  law.  must  be  done  twice  a  year  before  the  opening  of 
each  semester.  The  two  semesters  begin  after  Easter  in 
the  spring,  and  after  Michaelmas  Day  in  the  fall,  at  which 
times  children  are  admitted  to  the  school.  In  many  places, 
especially  in  the  countiy,  they  are  admitted  at  Easter  only. 

3.  The  school  board  furnishes  the  teacher  or  principal 
with  the  above  list,  so  that  he  knows  exactly  how  many 
pupils  to  expect  at  the  opening  of  school.  He  also  knows 
what  class  a  pupil  of  an  advanced  grade  who  has  come 
from  another  school  will  enter.  Thus  any  necessary  prep- 
aration for  the  accommodation  and  instruction  of  the 
pupils  can  be  made  beforehand. 

4.  Should  any  child  not  appear,  or  should  one  be  absent 
any  school  day  during  the  year  without  previous  excuse 
from  the  parent,  the  matter  is  referred  -at  once  to  the 
police,  whose  duty  it  is  to  immediately  look  the  case  up 
and  give  the  parent  personal  warning  if  there  is  not  good 
excuse  for  absence. 

5.  The  parent  is  held  accountable  for  the  attendance  of 
his  children.  If  after  warning  he  still  neglects  to  keep  his 
child  in  school,  he  is  subject  to  a  fine,  which  is  increased 

*  "When  children  have  reached  a  suflBcient  ripeness,  and  their 
parents  need  their  help,  they  may  be  dismissed  from  the  school,  by 
special  dispensation  of  the  school  authorities,  before  they  have 
reached  their  fourteenth  year. 


Compulsory  Education,  73 

upon  continued  neglect.  If  the  child  is  incorrigible,  and 
the  parent  unable  to  control  him,  he  is  sent  to  a  reform 
school.  Snch  cases,  however,  are  very  rare.  Indeed,  the 
habit  of  regular  attendance  is  so  fixed  in  Germany,  as  we 
have  seen,  and  the  compulsory  law  so  thoroughly  enforced, 
that  unjustified  absence  is  comparatively  rare. 

Usually,  if  a  child  is  ill,  the  parent  gives  the  teacher 
immediate  notice,  so   that  he  knows  at    the  mnew  the 
opening  of  the  session  what  children  will  not  '"^y  excuse, 
be  present.     Illness  is  the  only  excuse  that  is  accepted  for 
absence. 

This  in  general  is  the  plan  that  is  carried  out  throughout 
the  whole  kingdom  of  Pnissia.  The  city  of  Berlin  has  a 
plan  of  its  own  under  an  old  right,  which  is  xhe  Berlin 
tenaciously  and  jealously  guarded.  It  varies  practice, 
from  the  above  in  that  the  local  trustees  instead  of  the 
police  have  the  enforcement  of  the  law.  In  one  vital  point 
the  Berlin  law  is  far  inferior  to  the  general  law.  Each 
Saturday  the  principal  of  the  school  sends  a  list  of  unex- 
cused  absentees  for  the  week  to  the  chairman  of  the  local 
committee  (see  page  72),  who  in  turn  distributes  the  work 
of  visiting  the  homes  and  giving  the  warning  to  his  col- 
leagues who  live  nearest  to  the  delinquents.  Thus  several 
days'  absence  may  occur  before  anything  is  done  excepting 
what  the  teacher  has  done.  Then  the  further  enforce- 
ment of  the  law,  such  as  punishment  of  parents  for  negli- 
gence and  other  matters,  is  cumbersome  and  not  wholly 
effective.  True,  there  are  only  comparatively  few  delin- 
quents in  Berlin,  but  this  is  owing  more  to  the  wish  of 
the  parents  and  the  habit  of  regular  attendance  already 
mentioned  than  to  the  efficiency  of  the  law.  Teachers 
generally  feel  that  the  law  of  the  whole  land,  which  re- 
quires the  police  to  attend  to  absences  at  once,  is  far  pref- 
erable. 

While  many  of  the  states  of  America  have  a  compulsorv 


74  School  Systems  of  Germany 

law,  in  not  a  single  instance  does  it  apply  to  the  whole 

school  year.    The  thought  has  been  that,  beginning  with  a 

small  portion  of  the  school  year,  we  can  gradually  increase 

the  required  attendance  until  it  covers  the  whole  year.     It 

must  be  admitted  that  but  little  progress  in  this  direction 

has  been  made.     The  laws  that  have  stood  on 
Compulsory 
education       the  statute-books  have  generally  been   disre- 

for  every  garded,  and  we  believe  chiefly  because  they  cover 
^  '^  ^'  such  short  periods.  All  German  laws  upon  this 
subject,  from  1619  down  to  the  present,  require  attendance 
for  all  of  the  time  the  school  is  in  session.  The  right  to 
compel  school  attendance  is  thoroughly  established  through- 
out the  United  States,  just  as  the  right  to  tax  all  property 
for  school  purposes  is  established.  If  the  state  may  compel 
attendance  for  six  weeks,  it  has  a  right  to  compel  it  for 
forty  weeks,  for  every  school  day.  Therefore  compulsory 
education  laws  based  on  the  following  principles  should  be 
adopted : 

1.  Regular  attendance  for  all  schools  for  which  the 
people  are  taxed  should  be  required  for  every  day  the  school 
is  in  session. 

2.  The  enforcement  of  the  law  should  devolve  upon  the 
township  (city)  board  of  education  in  a  general  way;  but 
its  specific  enforcement  should  rest  with  the  local  commit- 
tee which  has  charge  of  each  school.  (See  page  67.)  The 
town  board  should  appoint  as  many  agents  with  police  au- 
thority as  may  be  necessary.  In  cities  and  villages  there 
should  be  one  for  each  school.  This  officer,  under  direc- 
tion of  the  local  trustees,  shall  execute  the  law. 

3.  For  non-enforcement  of  the  law  the  state  public 
moneys  should  be  withheld  from  the  district. 

4.  The  district  school-inspector  should  have  especial 
oversight  of  this  matter,  and  should  stand  in  close  relation 
to  the  school  board  and  teachers  in  his  effort  to  make  the 
law  effective. 


Compulsory  Education.  'lib 

5.  The  parent  should  be  held  responsible  for  neglect  to 
comply  with  the  law. 

There  is  nothing  un-American,  in  this  plan ;  indeed,  all 
of  the  principles  here  suggested  as  a  foundation  to  compul- 
sory laws  have  already  been  asserted,  but  have  not  been 
caiTied  out  to  a  legitimate,  logical,  and  successful  conclu- 
sion. This  plan  conscientiously  carried  out  would  certainly 
accomplish  the  desired  result.  Attendance  at  school  for 
every  school  day  tends  to  form  a  habit  of  diligence  and 
regularity  which  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  after  life 
in  business  and  in  intercourse  with  our  fellow-men.  It 
also  is  of  utmost  value  to  the  school-work,  which  otherwise 
must  necessarily  be  desultory,  fragmentary,  and 
unsatisfactory.  The  enforcement  of  compul-  <»"**  s^""* 
sory  education  would  not  lead  the  teacher  to  gndi  ^  jg^, 
make  the  school  any  less  attractive,  nor  \t'ould 
it  affect,  fortunately,  the  vast  majority  of  children  now 
attending  school ;  but  it  would  save  many  an  idle,  vicious, 
and  ignorant  child  from  a  life  of  evil,  and  make  him  a 
useful  citizen  and  a  good  member  of  society.  It  would 
reach  children  whom  the  school  cannot  attract,  over  whom 
the  school  gets  no  opportunity  to  exert  an  influence, 
because  they  never  become  acquainted  with  it;  it  would 
teach  them  good  habits  and  prepare  them  for  business  by 
the  very  regularity  required,  as  well  as  by  the  instniction 
given.  It  is  not  the  great  majority  of  its  citizens  that 
the  state  has  to  guard  itself  against.  Most  men  quietly 
attend  to  the  duties  of  life  and  never  come  in  conflict 
with  the  law.  The  same  is  true  of  children.  It  is  the  evil 
few,  who  will  make  up  the  future  dangerous  class,  that  the 
state  must  provide  for,  and  hence  the  necessity  .of  com- 
pulsory education.  No  doubt  the  lamentable  failure  of 
compulsory  education  laws  throughout  the  various  states 
of  the  Union  is  largely  owing  to  the  short  periods  which 
they  cover.     Let  the  required  attendance  cover  the  whole 


76  School  Systems  of  Germany » 

school  year,  and  make  participation  in  the  public  moneys 
depend  upon  the  carrying  out  of  the  law  in  each  commu- 
nity, and  there  is  no  question  about  the  success  of  com- 
pulsory education. 

It  is  urged  that  parents  need  the  assistance  of  their  chil- 
dren in  many  instances,  and  therefore  cannot  allow  them 
to  attend  school.  If  all  of  the  children  can  bo  kept  in 
Not  impos-  school  in  Germany,  where  wages  are  low  and 
siDie  because  the  necessities  of  life  high,  surely  the  same  can 
of  poverty,  j^g  ^Qj^g  jj^  America.  Better  that  the  state  as- 
sist needy  parents  for  a  time  than  that  their  children  shall 
be  deprived  of  their  right  to  an  education  which  shall  fit 
them  to  cope  with  their  fellow-men  in  life,  or  to  allow  them 
to  grow  up  in  ignorance  as  a  menace  to  society  and  a 
danger  to  the  state. 


The  Common  {Volks)  School,  77 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE  COMMON    (VOLKS)    SCHOOL. 

The  "  volks  "  school  is  the  fruit  of  Christian  love  of  hu- 
mauity,  and  its  beginning  is  generally  reckoned  at  the  Ref- 
ormation. We  have  already  seen  how  it  developed.  Its 
purpose  is  to  train  all  the  children  of  the  nation  to  be  God- 
fearing, patriotic  citizens,  fitted  by  the  educa-  p,j_,^  ^^ 
tion  they  receive  to  fill  their  place  in  society,  the  common 
Frederic  the  Great  wished  to  see  "  the  real  •<=Ji<x>i- 
welfare  of  all  classes  of  his  people  founded  upon  sensible 
and  Christian  instruction  of  the  youth  in  the  fear  of  God 
and  in  other  useful  things."  Von  Miiller,  Minister  of  Cul- 
ture under  William  I.  in  1869,  expressed  the  same  idea  as 
follows:  "  The  common  school  must  prepare  the  youth  for 
their  duty  towards  state  and  Church,  as  well  as  for  their 
calling  in  life,  by  means  of  instruction  and  by  training 
them  to  good  mental  and  moral  habits."  The  same  idea 
has  been  reiterated  time  and  again  by  rulers  and  educators, 
namely,  the  instruction  of  the  youth  with  the  idea  of 
forming  good  habits  and  the  development  of  character. 
These  are  the  reasons  for  the  existence  of  schools  and  why 
the  people  are  called  upon  to  support  them. 

The  celebrated  Von  Altenstein,  the  first  Minister  of  Cul- 
ture in  Prussia,  indicated  clearly  in  1829  the 
object  of  the  schools,  as  follows :  idea  of  the 

"1.  They  must  seek  to  lead  the  youth  to  the  school 
Christian  faith  in  its  simplicity,  life,  and  power.   ^""'**"*- 

"2.  By  means  of  this  faith  to  find  the  basis  of  moral  and 
happy  lives. 


78  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

"3.  To  be  clear  and  true  in  thought  to  the  full  measure 
of  the  talent  God  has  given. 

"4.  To  express  their  thoughts  clearly  and  connectedly. 

"5.  To  comprehend  the  thoughts  of  others  in  matters 
that  come  within  their  sphere  of  life. 

"  6.  To  be  able  to  read,  write,  reckon,  and  sing. 

"7.  To  love  their  rulers  and  their  fatherland  and  its 
laws,  in  order  to  live  peacefully  and  contentedly  in  the 
sphere  where  their  lot  is  cast. 

*'  8.  To  an  acquaintance  with  the  useful  things  of  nature 
in  order  to  apply  them  for  their  use  and  comfort  and  for 
the  maintenance  of  health. 

"9.  To  sum  up,  the  schools  should  make  the  pupils  able, 
with  strong,  well-trained  body,  wide-awake  mind,  and 
right  feelings,  to  do  their  duty  towards  God,  king,  and 
fatherland." 

The  state  insists  that  all  cuildren  shall  have  the  elements 
of  education  at  least,  and  provides  ample  jneans  to  attain 
that  end.  How  well  it  succeeds  in  bringing  about  the 
desired  result  may  be  indicated  by  the  fact  that  of  those 
who  entered  the  army  in  1893  99  j\  per  cent  had  passed 
through  at  least  the  common-school  course. 

While  the  state  requires  that  all  children  shall  attend 

school,  it  does  not  require  them  to  attend  the  common  or 

Parents  free    public  schools.     It  is  left  to  the  family  to  de- 

to  choose  (3i(je  whether  their  children  shall  attend  the 
manner  of  edo-      ,  , .         ,       ,  .      ,  ,       ,  ,  .   , 

eating  their    pnblic  schools,    or  private  schools,    or  higher 

children.  grade  schools  of  a  semi-public  character,  where 
higher  tuition  is  paid,  and  which  usually  prepare  for  the 
high  schools,  or  whether  a  teacher  shall  be  taken  into  tlie 
house  as  private  teacher.  Thereby  the  sacred  family  right 
to  educate  their  own  children  is  respected.  But  the  state 
asserts  the  right  to  fix  the  minimum  course  of  study ;  to 
require  regular  school  attendance,  whether  it  be  in  a  gen- 
eral school  or  in  the  home ;  to  pass  upon  the  qualification 


The  Common  {Volhs)  School.  79 

of  all  teachers;  and  to  inspect  the  education  of  all  chil- 
dren, wherever  it  may  be  undertaken.  Thus  private  schools 
and  home  teaching  are  as  carefully  looked  after  as  the 
public  institutions,  so  far  as  results  are  concerned. 

The  common  schools  are  open  to  every  child  of  school 
age  without  regard  to  religious  belief  or  confession ;  but 
no  child  can  be  required  to  remain  at  religious  instruction 
if  of  another  faith.  Religious  instruction  must  be  had, 
however,  if  not  taken  in  the  school,  either  from  the  pastor 
of  that  particular  confession  or  from  other  outside  means. 
The  common  schools  are  all  of  a  confessional  •  character, 
dividing  generally  on  the  Imes  of  Protestant  and  Catholic. 
Protestant  teachers  are  employed  for  Protestant  schools, 
and  Catholic  teachers  for  Catholic  schools ;  and  both  alike 
are  supported  at  public  expense. 

In  small  villages  where  only  one  school  can  be  supported, 
children  of  all  confessions  attend  the  same  school,  the 
teacher  being  of  the  confession  having  the  majority  of 
children,  and  children  of  religious  faith  other  than  his  are 
excused  from  religious  instruction  in  the  school.  The 
state  decides  whether  it  is  advisable  to  erect  another 
school  in  a  community  for  confessional  reasons,  ^-^^^^  ^^ 
being  governed  by  the  number  of  children  and  confessional 
by  the  activity  of  the  community  to  support  an  in  character, 
extra  school.  Thus,  where  there  are  a  sufficient  number  of 
Jewish  children,  a  special  school  may  be  organized  for  them. 
The  different  branches  ot  the  evangelical  Church  are 
not  recognized  by  the  organization  of  special  schools,  but 
parents  may  have  their  wishes  respected  with  reference  to 
religious  instruction  by  having  it  given  by  their  pastor. 
As  Prussia  is  so  largely  Protestant,  but  little  £--1-^4. 
trouble  of  adjustment  arises;  but  it  often  occurs  leges  for  au 
in  cities  that  there  are  schools  for  Protestant  co'^'essions. 
children  and  schools  for  Catholic  children  in  the  same  school- 


80  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

yard,  each  enjoying  eqnal  privileges  under  the  state  and 
each  respecting  the  rights  of  the  other. 

We  have  seen  that  the  school  year  begins  with  Easter, 
and  that  pupils  are  admitted  only  then  and  at  Michaelmas, 
in  many  cases  only  at  Easter.  The  financial  school  year 
begins  April  1,  as  the  date  of  Easter  varies  from  year  to 
year.  Also  that  the  school  period  is  from  6-14  years  of 
age  and  that  attendance  is  expected  for  every  school  day 
during  this  period.  The  completion  of  the  course  is  an 
occasion  of  festivity,  as  marking  an  important  epoch  in 
the  child's  life.  It  is  connected  with  the  confirmation 
and  admission  to  Church  membership,  and  the  pupil  is  no 
longer  a  child,  but  is  admitted  to  the  dignity  and  respect 
of  manhood  or  womanhood.  The  school  authorities  have 
Private  as  ^^^®  right  to  examine  not  alone  pupils  in  the 
weu  as  public  schools,  but  also  those  in  private  schools, 
pntuc  schools  Qj,  ^^^gg  ^^^gj^^  ^y  private  teachers.     The  state 

authority  of  thus  fully  controls  education  everywhere,  and 
the  state.  j^^  child  can  be  allowed  to  leave  school  until  he 
has  attained  the  necessary  knowledge  and  ripeness  re- 
quired by  law.  The  state  supervision  of  private  schools 
keeps  their  standard  up,  and  at  the  same  time  makes  the 
educational  requirements  a  unit  everywhere. 

School  sessions  are  usually  from  8  to  12  and  from  2  to  4, 
the  morning  sessions  being  held  six  days  in  the  week, 
Wednesday  and  Saturday  afternoons  being  free.  The 
fixing  of  school  hours  is  left  to  local  boards.  In  some 
localities  the  school  hours  are  7-11  in  the  summer,  and  in 
some  country  districts,  where  the  children  are  needed  to 
assist  at  home,  the  hours  are  still  earlier.  In  Berlin  and 
some  of  the  other  large  cities  the  morning  hours  are  8-1, 
and  the  children  do  not  return  in  the  afternoon  except  cer- 
tain days  for  gymnastics  or  other  light  work. 

The  recitations  are  full  hours,  except  in  schools  of  one 
teacher,  where  the  number  of  classes  necessitates  the  divi- 


The  Common  (Volks)  School.  81 

sion  of  the  hour,  but  at  the  end  of  each  second  hour  there 
is  a  recess  of  10-20  minutes.  In  some  schools  ^^^  ^^^^ 
there  is  a  short  recess  at  the  end  of  each  hour,  reciutioM 
but  during  the  long  recess  all  of  the  children  '""^  *"• 
are  required  to  go  out  of  doors,  regaidless  of  the  weather. 
They  march  slowly  around  the  school-yard,  in  line,  nnder 
the  care  of  one  or  more  teachers.  Seldom  are  children 
allowed  to  run  and  play  with  freedom  in  the  school-yard. 
We  have  often  criticised  this  practice  to  German  uo  piay  at 
teachei's,  but  have  been  met  with  the  reply  that  recess, 
the  yards  are  so  small  that  there  is  danger  of  injury,  and 
that  too  much  exercise  "  would  prevent  digestion  of  their 
breakfast."*  Our  reply  was  that  the  yards  are  fully  as 
large  as  our  American  school-yards  under  like  conditions, 
that  injury  seldom  results  with  us,  and  that  the  good 
which  would  come  from  lively,  earnest,,  and  joyous  play 
would  far  overbalance  any  harm  that  could  come  from  the 
indigestion  of  a  sandwich.  To  an  observer  the  "  prison 
march  "  of  children  during  recess  in  a  German  school  is 
fearfully  painful,  while  it  accomplishes  but  little  good. 
The  opportunity  is  afforded  during  recess  to  ventilate  the 
schoolrooms,  which  many  times,  however,  is  wholly  neg- 
lected, and  in  some  cases  forbidden.  As  a  result  the  air 
in  the  classrooms  is  generally  bad,  the  Germans  having  by 
no  means,  no  more  than  we,  solved  the  problem  of  school 
ventilation. 

The  children  of  all  kinds  of  schools,  whether  taught  by 
one  teacher  or  by  many,  are  divided  into  three  general 
grades  or  classes  (Stufen),  the  lowest,  the  mid-  xhreen-ades 
die,  and  the  highest.  These  correspond  with  for  au  kinds 
our  primary,  intermediate,  and  grammar  grades.  "'  »ciioois. 
The  lowest  grade  includes  children  6-8,  the  middle  grade 

*  It  is  the  custom  in  all  German  schools  for  pupils  as  well  as 
teachers  to  take  lunch,  "  breakfast,"  as  they  call  it,  consisting  gen- 
erally of  a  sandwich,  during  the  first  recess. 


82  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

those  8-11,  and  the  highest  grade  11-14.  Those  of  the 
lowest  grade  must  attend  school  20-32  hours  per  week, 
while  the  others  have  26-30  hours.  Each  teacher  is  ex- 
pected to  give  32  hours  per  week,  though  in  the  cities  it 
often  occurs  that  they  give  not  more  than  24-28  hours. 
In  the  country,  however,  the  number  generally  exceeds  the 
legal  maximum.  The  number  of  pupils  for  one  teacher  is 
limited  to  80,  though  in  some  districts  the  number  still 
goes  to  100  and  even  more.  In  Berlin  one  finds  seldom 
more  than  60,  and  in  the  advanced  class  from  40  to  50. 

Vacations  comprise  about  63  days,  exclusive  of  Sundays, 
thus  leaving  about  42  weeks  of  actual  school  during  the 
year.  The  summer  vacation  commences  about  the  middle 
of  July  and  lasts  from  3  to  4  weeks.  The  Easter,  Michael- 
mas, and  Christmas  vacations  are  each  about  two  weeks, 
and  there  is  also  a  three-days'  vacation  at  Whitsuntide. 
The  school  boards  of  the  various  districts  may  fix  the  va- 
cations to  suit  local  conditions,  such  as  time  of 
Vacations 
may  vary  to    harvest,  etc.,  but  must  keep  within  the  limit  of 

suit  local  total  time  allowed  for  vacations.  The  Michael- 
mas vacation  is  usually  known  as  the  "  potato  " 
vacation,  because  it  comes  at  the  time  of  the  potato  har- 
vest. The  summer  or  "  harvest  "  vacation  is  made  from 
year  to  year  to  suit  the  conditions  of  the  harvest  in  various 
sections  of  the  country  so  that  the  children  may  be  free  to 
assist. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  holidays  generally  occur  at 
religious  festivals.  This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
school  is  the  child  of  the  Church,  having  been  organized, 
watched  over,  and  long  supported  by  her,  until  the  state 
adopted  compulsory  education,  and  therefore  necessarily 
assumed  that  the  school  is  a  state  institution.  The  Church, 
however,  still  assists  in  many  districts  in  the  support  of 
schools,  and  is  also  closely  connected  with  them  by  both 
interest  and  authority,  as  we  have  already  seen. 


The  Common  (Volks)  School,  83 

No  parent  or  other  person  is  allowed  to  visit  the  school, 
excepting  such  persons  as  have  to  do  with  the  superintend- 
ence or  inspection  of  the  school.     Permission  is  yj^jt^yg  ^^^ 
granted  to  professional  teachers,  especially  for-  allowed  in 
eigners  who  may  desire  to  study  the  workings  ^*  "ciioois. 
of  the  school.     Even  the  school  board  have  not  the  right 
to  visit  the  sessions  of  the  school,  as  they  have  nothing  to 
do  with  the  internal  workings  of  the  school.     The  teacher 
has  been  professionally  prepared  to  conduct  the  school, 
and  he  is  held  accountable  for  its  success,  being  responsible, 
so  far  as  the  internal  affairs  of  the  school  are  conceaned, 
only  to  his  inspector,  who  is  also  a  professional  educator. 

This  practice,  so  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  American 
teachers  and  school  authorities,  is  justified  in  Germany  by 
the  argument  that  parents  who  might  visit  the  school  are 
generally  not  capable  of  judging  of  the  merits  of  the  work 
because  they  are  not  professionally  trained,  and  therefore 
their  presence  would  simply  disturb  both  pupils  and  teacher 
without  doing  any  good.  The  point  is  certainly  well  taken 
so  far  as  Germany  is  concerned.  It  may  be  doubted  if  in- 
America  much  good  has  ever  come  from  the  practice,  al- 
though but  few  parents  ever  make  use  of  this  right,  as  it 
disturbs  the  order  of  the  school,  awakens  a  desire  to  un- 
natural and  unusual  effort  on  the  part  of  both  pupils  and 
teacher,  and  interferes  with  the  office  of  the  school,  which 
is  steadily,  systematically,  day  after  day  to  build  up  the 
structure  of  knowledge. 

As  parents  are  excluded  from  the  regular  school-work,  it 
has  long  been  the  practice  to  hold  public  oral  examinations 
(Priifungen)  at  the  close  of  each  semester,  especially  at  the 
close  of  the  year,  just  before  Easter,  to  which  pubuc  ex- 
the  public  are  invited.     The  design  is  to  keep  aminations 
the  parents  interested  in  the  schools  by  this  parents  a 
means.     Only  pupils  who  are  to  be  promoted  failure, 
are  admitted  to  this  examination,  and  failure  to  answer  the 


84  School  Systems  of  Germattv. 

questions  affects  in  no  way  their  promotion.  The  teacher 
exercises  tliem  beforehand  thoroughly  in  the  questions  to  be 
asked,  and  nothing  new  is  ever  proposed.  The  whole  thing 
thus  becomes  simply  an  exhibition.  Parents  do  not  at- 
tend them  very  considerably,  and  thus  the  one  object  sought 
miscarries.  A  committee  from  the  school  deputation  is 
present,  and  this  serves  as  an  examination  of  the  school  on 
their  part.  The  teachers  are  almost  unanimously  against 
the  practice,  believing  that  it  is  harmful  rather  than  bene- 
ficial. They  have  been  abandoned  in  the  higher  schools. 
It  has  been  declared  that  "  they  no  longer  serve  to  keep 
up  the  connection  of  the  family  to  the  school,"  and  their 
universal  abandonment  is  recommended.  To  take  their 
I)lace,  and  interest  the  parents  in  the  school  and  make 
them  acquainted  with  the  teacher  who  instructs  their  chil- 
dren, it  is  suggested  that  national  and  Church  holidays  be 
occasions  upon  which  by  some  sort  of  public  festivity 
teachers,  parents,  and  children  shall  be  brought  together, 
HoUday  pic-  ^^^  ^J  singing  national  songs,  by  speeches, 
nics  recom-  by  declamations,  and  by  other  exercises  awaken 
S-aw^schooi  ^  mutual  sympathy  and  interest.  As  the  par- 
and  family  ents  also  have  these  holidays,  a  larger  number 
together.  would  be  reached,  and  therefore  a  wider  influ- 
ence exerted.  Without  doubt  this  would  be  a  decided 
improvement  over  the  present  plan,  and  would  culti- 
vate patriotism,  as  well  as  interest  in  the  school  and  its 
teachers. 

At  the  close  of  each  semester  there  are  the  examinations 
for  promotion.  These  are  both  oral  and  written  and  are 
left  to  each  school  by  itself,  general  instructions  from  the 
Examinations  ^*^^iool  authorities  being  given.  The  teachers 
for  promo-  are  allowed  to  use  their  judgment  in  this  matter, 
tion.  j^  being  recognized  that  a  teacher  who  has  been 

in  daily  contact  with  a  child  for  months  and  has  taught 
him  the  various  subjects  of  the  school  course  is  fully  able 


The  Common  (Volks)  School.  85 

to  determine  whether  he  is  ripe  for  promotion.  Examina- 
tions therefore  are  not  a  bugbear,  nor  are  they  considered 
as  of  great  vital  importance. 

The  next  question  of  interest  is  the  discipline  of  the 
schools.  While  corporal  punishment  is  practically  abolished 
in  Berlin  and  some  other  places,  it  is  generally  recognized 
that  the  teacher  is  in  loco  parentis^  and  that  all  rights  be- 
longing to  the  parent  belong  to  the  teacher,  so  far  as  pun- 
ishment is  concerned.  A  teacher  may  be  called  to  an  ac- 
count in  the  courts  for  abusing  this  prerogative  Discipline  in 
just  as  a  parent  may  be.  It  rests  with  any  local  the  schools, 
board  to  wholly  abolish  corporal  punishment  in  its  school  at 
pleasure.  As  the  teacher  is  required  to  record  each  case, 
specifying  the  causes  which  made  it  necessary,  the  manner 
and  amount  of  punishment,  and  finally  report  the  same  to 
the  school-inspector,  safeguards  are  placed  around  its  prac- 
tice which  serve  to  restrain  it  within  proper  bounds.  We 
know  that  the  impression  prevails  among  Americans  that 
German  teachers  "spare  not  the  rod,"  and  that  their 
manner  of  discipline  is  severe,  if  not  brutal.  A  series  of 
visits  running  into  the  hundreds,  covering  all  classes  of 
schools  in  all  parts  of  Germany,  and  during  a  period  of 
four  years,  does  not  bear  out  that  view  of  the  case.  On 
the  contrary,  the  spirit  of  the  great  body  of  teachers  is 
that  of  kindly  and  humane  interest,  affectionate  solici- 
tude for  moral  growth,  and  the  administration  of  justice 
always  tempered  with  mercy.  They  are  from  hereditary 
pedagogical  custom  rigid,  firm,  and  exacting  in  discipline, 
but  that  does  not  mean  that  there  is  lack  of  Sympathy 

love  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  or  that  the  ^^t^^^i^ 

■"•  popils  and 

pupils  do  not  love  their  teacher.     Indeed,  the  teachers. 

children  are  generally  fond  of  their  teacher,  and  hold  him 

in  highest  respect.     Kindness  is  the  rule  and  harshness  the 

rare  exception.     No  doubt  there  are  still  abuses  of  this 

kind,  and  so  there  are  in  the  American  schools,  but  the 


86  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

idea  that  the  German  schoolmaster  is  a  tyrant  to  his  pnpils 
is  surely  a  mistaken  one. 

The  general  practice  in  Germany  as  to  the  authority  of 
the  teacher  outside  of  the  school  premises  is  that  his  au- 
thority holds  good  on  the  street  or  in  other  places  for  every 
Ontside  day  of  the  week.     He  may  call  a  piipil  to  ac- 

discipUne.  count  on  the  spot  or  may  call  him  up  in  school 
for  a  misdemeanor.  Indeed,  in  some  cases  parents  make 
use  of  this  by  asking  the  teacher  to  discipline  their  chil- 
dren when  they  are  unable  to  control  them  at  home,  thus 
making  the  teacher  a  sort  of  police  justice  and  policeman 
combined.  Of  course  these  conditions  no  longer  exist  in 
the  large  cities  to  so  wide  an  extent,  but  they  do  exist  in 
small  communities. 

Wherever  it  can  be  avoided,  boys  and  girls  are  never 
taught  together.  In  the  country  schools  this  cannot  be 
avoided,  and  both  sexes  attend  the  same  school;  but  in 
cities  separate  schools  are  always  established.  It  often 
Sexes  taught  occurs  that  a  boys'  and  a  girls'  school  are  in  the 
separately,  same  building,  the  boys  occupying  one  end  and 
tlie  girls  the  other,  and  one  common  yard  answering  for 
both,  the  two  schools  arranging  the  recesses  so  that  they 
fall  at  different  times.  Thus  there  are  cases  in  Berlin  in 
which  one  large  building  answers  for  two  thousand  chil- 
dren, a  thousand  of  each  sex.  The  chief  grounds  for  sep- 
arate schools  for  the  sexes  are:  1.  That  the  course  of  study 
for  girls  must  necessarily  be  different  from  that  of  boys. 
The  law  of  1869  declares  the  purpose  of  the  common 
school  to  be:  "To  assure  to  the  youth  the  necessary  prep- 
aration for  citizenship  and  godly  life,  as  well  as  for  some 
calling,  by  means  of  instruction  and  bringing  into  activity 
his  powers,  thereby  laying  the  foundations  of  culture  as 
well  as  moral  character."  Now  the  girl  must  be  prepared 
for  a  different  sphere  of  life,  therefore  the  course  for  her 
must  be  different  from  that  of  the  boy. 


The  Common  {Volks)  School.  6t 

2.  The  development  of  the  girl  is  more  rapid  than  that 
of  the  boy,  therefore  their  work  cannot  be  pursued  together. 
This  difference  of  development  necessitates  a  different 
method  of  instruction  for  the  two  sexes. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  not  wanting  educators  in 
Germany  who  believe  that  the  influence  of  children  of  op- 
posite sexes  upon  each  other  is  most  salutary  and  fully 
counterbalances  the  disadvantages.  In  the  conference  of 
1872,  called  together  by  the  Minister  of  Culture,  and  em- 
bracing representative  educators  from  all  parts  of  Prussia, 
the  separation  of  the  .sexes  after  the  age  of  ten  years  was 
fully  discussed.  The  conference  finally  resolved  that  it  is 
best  "  not  to  separate  the  sexes,  as  they  exercise  a  good  in- 
fluence upon  each  other,  and  the  girls  would  also  be  better 
instructed  in  their  last  years  of  school  by  men,*  the  separa- 
tion only  to  take  place  in  such  subjects  as  require  it  " 
(needlework,  gymnastics,  etc.).  And  yet  the  general 
practice  in  all  places  where  possible,  as  already  mentioned, 
is  to  separate  the  sexes. 

The  apparatus  for  teachers'  use  in  each  school  is  specified 
as  follows : 

A  copy  of  each  book  used  in  the  classes;  a  globe;  a 
map  of  the  locality  and  province ;  a  map  of  Germany ;  a 
map  of  Palestine ;  several  charts  for  teaching  history ;  sev- 
eral alphabetical  charts  in  large  letters  for  use  with  begin- 
ners in  reading;  a  violin;  a  ruler  and  pair  of  compasses; 
an  apparatus  for  teaching  number;  and  in  evangelical 
schools  also  a  Bible,  and  the  song-book  used  in  that  locality. 

In  large  schools  this  list  is  to  be  materially  extended. 

Besides  these  the  teacher  is  to  have  a  register,  a  course 
of  study,  and  a  daily  programme  always  at  hand. 

The  materials  each  pupil  is  to  furnish  are  also  definitely 
prescribed.     They  are  as  follows : 

*  The  higher  classes  axe  nearly  always  taught  by  men. 


88  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

A  reading-book ;  an  arithmetic  ;*  a  song-book  (religious), 
together  with  other  books  needed  in  religious  instruction ; 
a  slate,  pencil,  and  sponge,  with  ruler;  a  diary,  or  book  in 
which  to  make  notes;  a  writing-book;  a  blank  book  for 
orthography  and  composition;  and  for  upper  classes  a 
drawing-book. 

These  are  all  so  inexpensive  that  the  whole  cost  is  less 
than  a  dollar.  Most  children  have  a  knapsack  which  holds 
all  of  their  school  materials,  as  they  are  not  allowed  to 
leave  them  in  the  school.  Thus  one  sees  the  school-chil- 
dren going  to  and  from  school  each  with  a  knapsack 
strapped  upon  his  back. 

The  common  schools  are  classified  as  follows: 

•cr-   J      i,  r^-  Schools  with  one  teacher  (I.  class). 

Common  J  ^^  H*^^-'^*^  ««^«"^«- 

I  3,  Schools  with  two  teachers  (II.  class), 

'   I  4.  Schools  with  full  number  of  classes  (III.  class). 

1.  The  schools  with  one  teacher  are  thoroughly  graded 
and  classified,  though  denominated  "  one-class  "  schools. 

2.  The  half-day  schools  are  those  made  necessary  by 
local  conditions ;  thus  when  the  number  of  pupils  exceeds 
80,  and  the  size  of  the  schoolroom  or  the  financial  ability 
of  the  community  does  not  admit  of  the  employment  of  a 
second  teacher,  a  part  of  the  children  are  taken  for  half  of 
the  day,  and  the  rest  for  the  other  half. 

3.  Schools  that  employ  two  teachers  are  denominated 
"  two-class"  schools;  they  also  are  graded,  and  of  course 
more  closely  than  is  possible  in  a  "  one-class  "  school. 

4.  The  completely  organized  school  has  six  classes,  al- 
though there  are  eight  school  years.     This,  of  course,  is 

*  While  the  teacher  has  a  book  covering  the  whole  subject  of  arith- 
metic, special  books  are  made  for  the  pupils,  each  of  which  includes 
only  the  work  of  one  or  two  years.  Thus  the  pupils  are  able  to  get 
their  books  at  very  small  cost,  and  suited  to  each  class.  The  same 
is  also  true  of  some  otlfer  subjects. 


The  Common  (Volks)  School.  89 

possible  only  where  there  are  several  teachers  employed,  as 
in  towns  and  cities.  A  weakness  in  the  system  appears 
herein  the  fact  that  the  number  of  "classes"  does  not 
correspond  with  the  number  of  school  years.  Thus  a  child 
who  is  Avell  and  can  attend  school  regularly,  and  possesses 
ability  so  as  to  merit  promotion  each  year,  will  have  com- 
pleted the  course  in  six  years,  that  is  when  twelve  years  of 
:ige.  He  cannot  be  dismissed  from  school  without  the  full 
eight  years,  or  nearly  that.  Nothing  remains  but  for  him 
to  go  over  the  work  again.  The  course,  however,  is  of 
such  a  character  that  but  very  few  pupils  are  promoted 
every  year  of  their  course,  so  that  in  most  cases  j)iga^yjm. 
it  takes  the  full  eight  years  to  go  through  the  six  tages  of  a 

classes.     In  Berlin  there  are  two  ways  of  reliev-  "^-cia" 

arrang'ement 
ing  the  situation :  1.  In  large  schools  there  are  for  eiKht 

two  or  three  parallel  classes ;  the  best  pupils  are  "chooi  years, 
placed  in  the  upper  of  these  parallel  classes,  and  when 
it  comes  to  the  final  year  of  school  the  most  advanced  class 
have  a  fine  opportunity  for  review,  for  extension  and  deep- 
ening of  their  knowledge,  and  for  entering  new  fields. 
2.  There  are  a  limited  number  of  free  scholarships  at  the 
disposal  of  the  school  authorities  which  enable  the  bright- 
est children  who  have  completed  the  common-school  course 
to  go  into  a  higher  school.  Thus  boys  and  girls  who 
would  never  be  able  to  attend  the  higher  schools  on  account 
of  the  expense  are  encouraged  to  work  for  these  appoint- 
ments and  thereby  secure  superior  training.*  The  teachers 
generally  favor  eight  grades  to  correspond  with  the  number 
of  school  years,  rearranging  the  course  of  study  in  accord- 
ance therewith.  The  power  to  do  so  rests  with  the  local 
board,  who  hesitate  to  carry  out  this  reform,  chiefly  on  the 
alleged  ground  of  added  expense.     The  real  difficulty  does 

*  It  will  be  remembered  tbat  the  common  schools  are  free  in  Berlin. 
But  all  higher  schools  require  a  tuition-fee  of  100-180  marks  a  year. 


90  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

not  lie  here,  as  but  little  additional  expense  would  be  in- 
curred, the  present  teaching  force  in  most  schools  being 
able  to  carry  the  work  under  an  eight-class  arrangement  as 
well  as  under  the  present.  The  chief  difficulty  is  the  con- 
servatism which  hinders  the  introduction  of  innovations  or 
anything  different  from  the  long-established  usage.  Pro- 
gressive German  educators  recognize  the  advantage  that 
America  has  over  them  in  this  respect,  and  admire  the 
freedom  and  eagerness  with  which  new  ideas  are  incorpo- 
rated into  our  schools. 


The  Course  of  Study. 


91 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


Subjects 
Taught, 


Mathematics. 


THE   COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

The  subjects  taught  in  the  common  schools  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

Religion.  f  Speaking. 

German  Lanfiruafe.  •<  °' 

^  ^      I  Spelling. 

_  Writing. 

(  Arithmetic. 

\  Elementary  geometry. 
Singing. 
Drawing. 
History. 
Geography. 
Natural  science. 
Gymnastics  for  boys. 
Needlework  for  girls. 

This  constitutes  the  normal  course  required  in  all  com- 
mon schools  of  the  kingdom,  whether  taught  by  many 
teachers  or  by  one.  The  following  tables  indicate  the 
number  of  hours  per  week  in  each  subject  and  for  each 

grade: 

ONE-CLASS  SCHOOL.     (ONE  TEACHER.) 

Middle 
Grade. 

6 

10 


Elementary 
Grade. 


Subjects 

Religion 4 

German 11 

Mathematics 4 

Drawing 

Science 

Singing 1 

History 

Geography 

Gymnastics  (boys) 
Needlework  (girls) 


Upper 
Grade. 


].... 


21 


80 


80 


92  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

SCHOOLS  OF  MORE  THAN  ONE  CLASS. 

cinViianfa                   Elementary       Middle  Upper 

suDjects.                     Grade.            Grade.  Grade.  ' 

Religion ....  4                4  4 

German 11                 8  8 

Aritlimetic 4                4  4 

Geometry 2 

Drawing 2  3 

Science %  2  (4) 

History 2  2 

Geography 2  2 

Singing 12  3 

Gymnastics 


Needlework  ''  " 


\ 

22  38  30  (32) 


All  of  these  subjects  without  exception  are  obligatory,  and 
the  number  of  hours  as  above  specified,  but  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  hours  as  well  as  selection  of  material  for  the 
various  subjects  is  under  the  control  of  the  school  board  of 
the  district  with  final  ratification  by  the  general  school 
board  of  the  royal  government. 

Thus  local  conditions  and  wants  may  be  taken  into 
account  in  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  the  school 
courses,  care  being  taken  to  comply  with  the  above  general 
requirements. 

The  normal  course  specified  by  law,  which  is  the  mini- 
mum allowed  for  schools  of  all  classes,  will  be  discussed  by 
subjects  as  follows : 

Religion. 

Result  to  he  Obtained. — Ability  to  read  the  holy  Scrip- 
tures with  understanding,  knowledge  of  the  chief  dogmas 
of  the  Church  to  which  the  children  belong  (Catholic  or 
evangelical),  and  acquaintance  with  the  practices  and  duties 
of  a  religious  life. 


The  Course  of  Study.  93 

The  work  is  divided  into: 

1.  Sacred  History,  the  first  semester  of  the  lowest  grade  * 
being  devoted  to  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  second  se- 
mester to  the  New.  The  teacher  tells  the  story  of  the 
creation,  paradise,  the  Fall,  Cain  and  Abel,  the  Flood, 
call  of  Abraham,  Abraham  and  Lot,  temptation  of  Abra- 
ham, Joseph's  dream,  Joseph  sold,  the  first  visit  of 
Joseph's  brethren  to  Egypt,  the  second  visit,  etc.,  in 
simple  and,  as  far  as  may  be,  Bible  language.  In  the 
same  way  the  story  of  the  birth,  childhood,  manhood,  mir- 
acles, death,  and  resurrection  of  Jesus  is  told.  Also  the 
chief  characters  and  events  of  all  periods  of  sacred  history 
are  systematically  studied.  The  growth  of  the  Church  in 
apostolic  times,  the  history  of  the  Church  fathers,  the  in- 
troduction of  Christianity  into  Germany,  Luther  and  the 
Reformation,  as  well  as  questions  which  are  of  to-day,  are 
discussed  and  explained  as  far  as  may  be.  Of  course  schools 
that  are  well  equipped  with  teachers  can  cany  this  farther 
than  village  schools  having  but  one  teacher.  Committing 
to  memory  without  understanding  the  meaning  is  not  to 
be  practised ;  hence  the  teacher  must  explain  the  meaning, 
and  seek  to  bring  the  lessons  from  Bible  history  into  the 
actual  religious  and  moral  life  of  his  pupils,  thus  making 
the  lessons  of  practical  value  in  forming  character. 

2.  Bible  Reading. — The  upper  grade  is  given  the  Bibli; 
to  read,  and  chapters  from  the  Psalms,  Prophets,  and  New 
Testament  books  are  studied.  Many  texts  are  committed 
to  memory,  their  meaning  having  first  been  explained. 

3.  On  Saturday  the  lessons  for  the  church  service  of  the 
next  day  are  to  be  read  and  explained.  This  can  be  strictly 
followed  only  in  small  villages  where  all  attend  one  church, 

*  Attention  is  again  called  to  the  division  of  all  common  schools 
into  three  grades  (Stufen).  the  lower  grade  6-8,  the  middle  grade 
8  11,  and  the  upper  grade  11-14  years. 


H  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

and  where  the  teacher  is  expected  to  look  after  the  attend- 
ance of  children  upon  divine  service. 

4.  TJie  Catechism-. — Luther's  Smaller  Catechism  is  taught 
and  explained.  The  lower  classes  learn  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments, the  Lord's  Prayer,  texts  of  Scripture,  and 
Church  songs.  The  completion  of  this  part  of  the  work  is 
left  to  the  pastor,  who  prepares  the  child  for  confirmation 
when  he  leaves  school.  This  is  outside  of  the  school- work, 
though  the  teacher  and  pastor  generally  work  hand  in 
hand  in  this  respect. 

5.  Sacred  Songs. — These  are  taught  from  the  beginning 
of  the  course  till  the  end.  Those  in  most  common  use  in 
the  community  are  first  learned,  each  child  being  provided 
with  a  hymn-book.  About  thirty  hymns  are  committed  to 
memory,  sometimes  more,  but  not  until  after  the  meaning 
of  each  verse  has  been  studied  and  explained. 

6.  Prayers. — The  smaller  children  learn  the  simple 
morning,  midday,  and  evening  prayers,  which  are  used  at 
the  opening  and  closing  of  school  each  day.  The  various 
Church  sacraments  and  services  are  explained  to  the  older 
children.  The  German  language  abounds  in  many  beau- 
tiful prayers,  which  cannot  fail  to  have  a  softening  in- 
fluence upon  the  heart,  hence  the  wisdom  of  teaching  them 
to  children. 

This  in  general  is  the  course  specified.  It  may  be  modi- 
fied to  suit  local  conditions,  and  be  extended  in  schools 
where  it  is  possible. 

Language  (German). 

Instruction  in  language  includes  the  teaching  of  speak- 
ing, reading,  writing,  and  grammar.  All  of  these  are 
taught  together  from  the  day  the  child  enters  school,  and 
are  kept  in  close  connection  with  each  other  throughout 
the  whole  course.     They  are  thoroughly  correlated. 


The  Course  of  Study.  95 

1.  Speaking. — Exercises  in  oral  expression  do  not  require 
separate  periods  of  instruction,  but  are  taken  in  connection 
with  reading  and  writing  exercises,  and  indeed  in  every 
subject  taught.  Well-known  objects  and  familiar  themes 
form  the  first  basis  of  this  exercise,  the  object  being  to  get 
the  children  to  talk.  The  objects  to  be  sought  are  {a)  to 
bring  the  child  step  by  step  to  more  correct  and  plain 
pronunciation  of  every  word ;  {h)  to  express  his  thoughts 
freely  and  accurately  in  a  simple  sentence ;  (c)  to  express 
his  thoughts  using  complex  sentences;  and  finally,  {d)  to 
express  correctly,  fluently,  and  accurately  thoughts  ob- 
tained from  some  other  source,  as  a  book  or  address,  in  his 
own  language  in  topical  manner. 

2.  Writing  and  Reading. — These  go  hand  in  hand  accord- 
ing to  the  method  prescribed  by  the  teachers'  seminary  of 
that  district,  the  alphabet  method  being  forbidden.  The 
lowest  grade  writes  and  reads  words  and  short  sentences; 
the  middle  grade  also  writes  words  and  sentences  in  both 
German  and  Latin  script,  writes  sentences  from  dictation, 
spelling  correctly,  and  reads  intelligently;  the  upper  grade 
pupils  must  be  able  to  write  and  spell  correctly  anything 
that  they  will  meet  in  practical  life,  to  read  fluently  and 
intelligently  ordinary  reading.  The  two  highest  grades 
have  special  lessons  in  writing  from  copy,  the  end  to  be 
sought  being  a  neat,  plain,  and  easy  handwriting.  The 
results  of  the  instruction  in  writing  and  spelling  will  be 
shown  not  alone  in  the  copy-books,  but  also  in  the  compo- 
sition and  other  exercise  books,  all  of  which  must  be  neat 
and  well  written. 

3.  Grammar. — This  is  given  in  the  last  years  and  con- 
sists of  simple  sentences  and  the  simplest  relations  of  the 
parts  of  speech  at  first,  followed  by  compound  and  complex 
sentences  and  a  more  thorough  study  of  the  parts  of  speech 
and  syntax.     So  much  attention  is  given  to  language  from 


96  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

the  beginning  that  but  little  time  is  needed  for  technical 
grammar. 

4.  The  Beading-book. — This  is  the  basis  of  all  the  above 
work ;  it  is  not  to  be  used  simply  to  make  good  readers, 
but  to  bring  the  pupils  to  an  understanding  of  the  thought 
contained  in  the  pieces,  about  thirty  of  which  are  taken 
for  a  year's  work.  These  pieces  are  gems  of  literature  in- 
tended to  cultivate  a  taste  for  good  reading,  to  awaken  a 
love  for  fatherland,  and  to  give  some  knowledge  of  the 
great  poets  and  authors,  especially  since  the  Reformation. 
The  teacher  of  course  is  to  supplement  the  material  in 
the  book  with  information  concerning  authors  and  their 
works.  National  poems  are  to  be  committed  to  memory 
after  a  thorough  study. 

Arithmetic. 

The  lowest  grade  has  all  the  fundamental  operations  of 
concrete  and  abstract  numbers  from  1  to  100;  the  middle 
grade  unlimited  numbers  both  concrete  and  abstract,  frac- 
tions, reduction,  and  simple  rule  of  three. 

The  upper  grade  has  review  and  completion  of  fractions, 
the  application  of  all  previous  work  in  arithmetic  to  prob- 
lems of  practical  life,  and  all  of  the  branches  of  percent- 
age, in  schools  where  it  is  possible  also  extraction  of  roots. 
Mental  exercises  (Kopfrechnen)  occupy  the  lowest  grade  al- 
■nost  entirely,  and  they  must  always  precede  slate- work  in 
every  grade.  Exercises  from  practical  life  are  to  be  given, 
and  by  this  means  the  systems  of  money,  weight,  and  meas- 
ure are  to  be  taught.  Use  of  clear  and  correct  language 
must  always  be  insisted  upon,  and  the  end  to  be  sought 
is  ability  to  solve  the  problems  independently,  accurately, 
and  with  rapidity. 

Each  pupil  has  a  blank  book  in  which  he  writes  exercises 
given  by  the  teacher.  These,  and  not  a  text-book,  form 
the  basis  of  his  work. 


The  Course  of  Study,  97 

Oeometry.* 

This  comes  in  connection  with  the  instruction  in  arith- 
metic and  drawing.  But  the  upper  grade  has  special  work 
in  it.  It  includes  lines  of  all  kinds  (horizontal,  vertical, 
parallel,  etc.),  angles,  triangles,  quadrangles,  regular  figures, 
circles  with  their  related  lines,  and  bodies  of  regular  shape. 

In  schools  of  several  teachers,  where  it  is  possible  to  da 
80,  in  addition  to  the  above  elementary  exercises  in  equal- 
ity of  angles,  comparison  of  figures,  etc. ,  is  given. 

Drawing. 
Free-hand  drawing,  under  direction  of  the  teacher,  of 
figures  placed  by  him  on  the  blackboard ;  training  of  the 
eye  and  hand ;  skill  in  use  of  the  ruler,  measure,  and  com- 
passes; drawing  from  objects  in  the  schoolroom  and  else- 
where ;  pictures  of  the  schoolhouse,  .  school -grounds, 
churches,  and  other  buildings,  and  simple  landscapes. 
These  are  the  general  requirements;  in  schools  that  are 
well  graded  a  carefully  marked  out  course  for  each  class 
is  possible. 

History. 

Prominent  persons  and  events  from  the  early  history  of 
Germany  are  described ;  but  commencing  with  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  and  the  time  of  the  Great  Kurfurst  (seven- 
teenth century)  each  ruler  and  the  chief  events  of  his  reign 
are  discussed  down  to  the  present  time — not  simply  the 
wars,  but  also  events  of  importance  to  the  material  and  intel- 
lectual development  of  the  nation  are  given.  While  the 
work  is  taken  up  in  chronological  order  and  studied  con- 
secutively, the  memorizing  of  lists  of  chronological  dates 
and  rulers  is  not  allowed.     The  course  in  history  also  is 

*  The  Germans  use  the  term  ' '  Raaralehre  "  for  this  subject,  which 
means  space  proportions  or  measure  of  space.  As  it  treats  of  geo- 
metrical figures,  and  as  it  is  difficult  to  express  the  idea  with  a  simpler 
term,  we  use  the  word  geometry. 


98  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

extended  in  schools  where  it  is  possible.  The  object  aimed 
at  is  not  simply  the  accnmnlating  of  historical  facts,  but 
also  the  instilling  of  patriotism  and  love  of  king  into  the 
hearts  of  the  children. 

Geography. 

Geography  begins  with  the  immediate  surroundings — 
home  studies — and  reaches  outward ;  next  comes  the  prov- 
ince, then  the'  state,  the  fatherland,  and  finally  general 
study  of  the  other  countries  of  the  world ;  shape  and  mo- 
tions of  the  earth,  the  seasons  and  zones,  are  explained; 
the  oceans;  continents,  seas,  states,  and  their  peoples, 
rivers,  mountains,  and  the  chief  cities  are  studied  more 
thoroughly  at  the  end  of  the  course,  but  memorizing  of 
the  number  of  inhabitants  of  countries  or  cities,  of  lists 
of  cities,  etc. ,  is  forbidden.  The  instruction  must  be  given 
objectively. 

Sciences. 

The  work  in  science  touches  such  matters  as  come  in 
connection  with  practical  daily  life:  in  physiology,  the 
structure  and  care  of  the  human  body;  in  botany,  the 
native  plants  and  trees  and  their  uses,  and  poisonous 
plants,  as  well  as  those  that  contribute  to  our  wants,  but 
not  native,  such  as  cotton,  tea,  sugar  and  coffee  plants ;  in 
zoology,  domestic  animals  and  the  chief  wild  animals  of 
Germany  and  other  countries;  also  a  study  of  birds,  insects, 
etc.,  their  habits,  use,  and  protection;  in  mineralogy,  the 
stones  and  rocks  of  the  locality,  discussion  of  most  com- 
mon minerals,  such  as  salt,  coal,  iron,  etc. ;  in  physics,  ex- 
planation of  every-day  phenomena,  and  where  possible  ex- 
planations of  motion,  sound,  light,  heat,  magnetism,  elec- 
tricity, and  of  simple  common  machines.  Experiments 
are  to  be  made  wherever  possible.  The  main  object  to  be 
sought  in  all  science-work  is  to  awaken  an  interest  in  natural 
phenomena,  and  to  lead  the  children  to  careful  observation. 


The  Course  of  Study,  99 

Singing. 

Hymns  and  national  songs  are  taught  from  the  notes,  so 
that  the  pupils  are  able  to  sing  accurately  not  only  in  the 
chorus,  but  also  alone.  They  are  also  able  to  follow  the 
notes  so  as  readily  to  learn  new  music.  Besides  this  the 
words  of  the  songs  are  committed  to  memory,  so  that  each 
child  goes  out  into  the  world  with  a  goodly  number  of 
songs  and  a  fair  knowledge  of  music. 

Gymnastics. 

Two  hours  a  week  of  gymnastics  are  required  of  all  pupils 
in  the  middle  and  upper  grade,  and  recommended  for  the 
lowest  grade.  In  city  schools  a  very  careful  course  is 
marked  out  which  seeks  to  develop  all  parts  of  the  body 
harmoniously.  Girls  also  have  gymnastics  in  city  school 
systems,  but  this  is  not  possible  very  generally  in  the  country. 

Needlework.  ' 

Needlework  is  given  to  girls  two  hours  a  week  and  is 
everywhere  obligatory.  It  begins  with  the  middle  grade, 
and  includes  knitting,  plain  sewing,  fine  sewing,  mending, 
embroidery,  etc. . 

The  above  is  the  normal  course  required  throughout 
Prussia.  As  we  have  already  indicated,  city  schools  are 
able  to  go  much  beyond  these  requirements.  While  this 
minimum  must  be  given,  it  rests  with  each  community  to 
decide  how  much  farther  they  will  go  and  what  modifica- 
tions they  will  make  to  meet  local  conditions.  The  state 
discountenances  in  all  branches  of  study  simple  memoriz- 
ing of  material  that  is  not  understood.  It  lays  ^^^  ^^^ 
down  the  common  pedagogical  principles  of  known  to  the 
from  the  known  to  the  unknown^  from  the  simple  "ii™own. 
to  the  complex^  from  the  near  at  hand  to  the  remote^  and  asks 
all  teachers  to  apply  them  in  their  method  of  instruction. 


100 


School  Systems  of  Germany. 


We  present   here  the   programmes  of    two    kinds    of 
schools,  which  will  sufficiently  illustrate  the  daily  work. 


o 


73 

d  o)  d  -S 


c  «- 


ho  ^ 

a  '^ 


a    a 

.9      rt 


o 

•u 
DQ 


^<^ 


O   «5 


°D    .5    3 


03O 


>» 

0  ^ 

,£3 

Oi 

•■=•   3 

2 

2 

bCbO 

is 

«S 

oo 

Dij 

o 

m 

Hp"P> 

o 

« 

tt) 

a 

oj 
1 

^ 

a 

<ij 

■-|n-*< 

?  rt  s 


s  ® 

rt   «5   S    O 
O   «-i   ho  60 


bo 

a 


CO 

a 

-a 

r> 

m 

00 

fi 

m 

S3 

f-. 

<i> 

*-j^ 

a 

Xi 

T3 

bo 

>i 

<1) 

o 

«h; 

z; 

«.- 

s 

'boo 


9 

bo  .2  3 
3      bObO 


Is      3 


•r  3 
bo  ho 

^  a 

®   cS 


§  a 

bD.^3 


•r  3 
_hp  hO 


fccs 
-3<J 


to 


The  Course  of  Study.  101 

Explanations: 

1.  The  hours  are  indicated  by  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  as  it  is  left 
to  localities  to  decide  at  what  hour  school  shall  begin.  By 
this  plan  the  children  would  have  to  return  only  three 
afternoons  during  the  week,  three  being  free. 

2.  The  numbers  I.,  II.,  and  III.  indicate  the  three  grades 
into  which  all  schools  in  Prussia,  whether  of  one  teacher  or 
many,  are  divided.  Each  of  these  may  be  again  divided 
into  two  classes,  making  six  classes  in  the  school,  when  the 
conditions  admit  of  such  subdivision.  The  III.  division  is 
the  lowest,  the  II.  the  middle,  and  the  I.  the  upper.  (See 
page    81.) 

3.  The  dash  indicates  absence  of  that  class;  thus  in 
the  first  hour  the  III.  grade  is  absent  every  day  of  the 
week  excepting  Wednesdays  and  Saturdays,  thereby  leav- 
ing the  teacher  all  of  his  time  for  the  older  grades. 

4.  The  term  "  language  "  as  used  here  covers  speaking, 
spelling,  reading,  and  writing,  which  go  hand  in  hand  in 
instruction. 

5.  The  programme  is  so  arranged  that  in  many  cases 
two  grades,  especially  the  higher  ones,  are  employed  to- 
gether, and  sometimes  the  whole  scheol,  as  in  language 
the  second  hour  on  Wednesday,  arithmetic  the  third  hour 
on  Wednesday  and  Saturday,  etc.  This  recognizes  the 
fact  that  some  subjects  can  be  treated  profitably  with  chil- 
dren of  considerably  different  ages,  the  smaller  children 
absorbing  from  the  older  ones  and  gaining  a  vast  amount 
of  information  that  would  not  come  to  them  if  they  sat  in 
a  room  containing  only  one  class.  On  the  other  hand,  in- 
dividual class-work  is  given,  as  in  the  first  hour  on  Wednes- 
day and  Saturday,  the  third  hour  on  Monday,  Tuesday, 
Thursday,  and  Friday,  etc.,  when  the  I.  and  II.  grades  are 
busy  with  seat-work  while  the  teacher  gives  the  whole  hour 
to  the  III.  grade.  Indeed,  the  III.  grade  is  divided  into 
two  divisions,  each  receiving  a  half  hour  of  instruction  and 


102  School  Systems  of  Germany, 

a  half  hour  of  seat-work  alternately.  In  some  schools 
where  there  is  a  large  number  of  pupils  one  of  the  best 
pupils  is  taken  as  a  monitor  or  helper.  It  is  his  duty  to 
have  charge  of  those  doing  seat-work,  assisting,  overseeing, 
and  keeping  them  at  work.  He  also  assists  in  looking 
over  exercise-books  and  is  a  great  assistance  to  the  teacher. 
Children  having  had  this  experience  often  acquire  a  liking 
for  the  work,  and  if  they  show  tact  and  ability  therein  are 
recommended  by  the  teacher  as  candidates  for  the  prepar- 
atory schools  of  the  teachers'  seminaries,  in  order  ulti- 
mately to  Oecome  teachers. 

We  also  give  a  programme  for  schools  having  three 
teachers,  in  order  that  comparisons  can  be  made.  This 
plan  needs  simply  to  be  extended  to  apply  to  schools  of  any 
number  of  teachers. 

Referring  to  the  table,  it  may  be  remarked : 

1.  This  programme  gives  the  first  teacher  26  hours  per 
week  with  the  I.  grade,  the  second  teacher  28  hours  with 
the  II.  grade,  and  the  third  teacher  24  hours  in  the  III. 
grade  and  6  hours  in  the  I.  grade. 

2.  With  three  teachers  the  programme  can  be  made  more 
simple  than  with  one  teacher.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
subjects  on  Monday  are  repeated  on  Thursday,  those  of 
Tuesday  on  Friday,  and  those  of  Wednesday  on  Saturday, 

3.  In  this  programme  the  younger  classes  are  free  the 
fourth  hour  instead  of  the  first,  as  in  the  preceding  pro- 
gramme. 


The  Course  of  Study. 


103 


o> 

Oi 

•*>. 

CO 

to 

H^ 

i 

I.  Gymnastics  or 

Needlework 
II.  Singing 

III.        

I.  Language 
n.  History 
III.  Gymnastics 

I.  Geography 
II.        

ni.      

I.  Arithmetic 

n. 

HL 

I.  Language 
III! 

I.  Religion 
(Bible  History) 

II.         ditto 
III.        ditto 

o 

I.  Singing 

II.  Gymnastics 
or  Needlew'k 
III.  Singing 

I   Drawing 
II.  Nat.  Science 
III.  Language 

I.  Nat.  Science 
II.  Language 

I.  Arithmetic 

n. 
in. 

I.  Language 
II. 

in. 

I.  Religion 
(Catechism) 

II.         ditto 
IIL        ditto 

H 

c 

1 

>-^ 

Ghh 

1-^  t^ 

Sh-            ^ 

D 
i 

.  History 
.  Home  Geog- 
raphy 

.  Geometry 
.  Drawing 
.  Language 

1 

.  4  Religion 
(Bible-read'g) 
I  Language 

ditto 

ditto 

I.  Gymnastics 
or  Needlew'k 
II.  Singing 

III.        

I.  Nat.  Science 
II.  History 
III.  Gymnastics 

I.  Geography 

I.  Arithmetic 

n. 

III. 

I.  Language 
II. 
III. 

I.  Religion 
(Bible  History) 

II.      ditto 
in.      ditto 

H 

cr 

p 

I.  Singing 

II.  Gymnastics 
or  Needlew'k 
III.  Singing 

I.  Drawing 
II.  Nat.  Science 
III.  Language 

1.  Nat.  Science 

I.  Arithmetic 

n. 

I.  Language 
II.         '•  ^ 

in. 

I.  Religion 
(Catechism) 

II.        ditto 
in.        ditto 

1 

1           H^ 

1     ?^HH 

I  s„ 

1  ::hh 

1 
t 

.  History 
.  Home  Geog- 
raphy 

.  Geometry 
.  Drawing 
.  Language 

■  "S 

.  i  Religion 
(Bible  read'g) 

[.     ditto 
[.     ditto 

104  School  Systems  of  Germany, 


CHAPTER  XV. 

METHOD   OF  IKSTEUCTION". 

A  GREAT  deal  of  freedom  is  given  the  teacher  as  to  man- 
ner of  presenting  a  subject.  There  are  abundant  oppor- 
tunities for  him  to  show  his  individuality  and  to  present 
his  subjects  in  his  own  way.  And  yet  there  are  many 
things  in  common  in  the  manner  of  teaching  which  are 
discovered  in  the  young  teacher  as  well  as  in  the  old,  in  the 
country  school  as  well  as  in  the  city  school,  in  the  school 
where  all  grades  are  taught  by  one  teacher 
^f^**^d^  as  well  as  in  schools  having  many  teachers. 
This  uniformity  of  method  is  doubtless  owing 
to  the  fact  that  nearly  all  of  the  teachers  are  trained  in 
the  teachers'  seminaries,  having  practically  the  same  course 
of  study,  to  the  general  course  of  study  for  all  of  the 
schools,  to  the  long  periods  of  service  of  teachers  which  lead 
to  lixed  habits  of  teaching,  and  to  the  traditions  of  the  past. 

The  following  are  the  general  characteristics  which  are 
found  in  schools  everywhere  in  Germany: 

1.  A  school  period  is  not  a  "  recitation  hour, "  but  an 

"  instruction  hour  "  (Unterrichtsstunde).    The  object  is  to 

give  mstruction,  and  not  hear  lessons.    By  means 

tatoon"hour  ^^  instruction  the  pupils  learn,   hence   there 

but  an  "in-   are  not  alternate  periods  of  study  and  recita- 

stmction "  ^JQQ  ag  jj^  ^}jg  American  schools.  The  pupils 
hour. 

are  under  the  instruction  of  the  teachei  all  of  the 

time  they  are  in  school.  In  America  it  is  the  general  prac- 
tice to  give  the  pupil  at  least  as  much  time  to  prepare  his 
lessons  as  is  taken  in  reciting  them.     Aside  from  that  he 


Method  of  Instruction.  105 

must  do  some  work  at  home,  sometimes  a  great  deal.  In 
the  German  schools,  on  the  contrary,  but  little  time  is 
given  to  prepare  lessons,  nor  has  the  pupils  much  to  do  at 
home.  The  German  teacher  expects  his  pupils  to  practi- 
cally know  the  lesson  when  he  gets  through  with  his  in- 
struction. He  may  give  his  pupils  seat-work  to  do,  par- 
ticularly in  a  mixed  school,  where  the  time  must  be  divided 
among  several  classes,  and  also  some  home-work.  This 
home-work  is  examples  in  arithmetic,  drawing  maps,  com- 
position, exercises  in  writing,  etc.  But  to  assign  so  many 
pages  to  be  learned,  or  such  a  topic  to  be  prepared,  is  not 
the  practice.  The  home-  and  seat-work  is  to  follow  the 
instruction  of  the  teacher  rather  than  precede  it.  It  is  in- 
tended to  fix  the  knowledge  already  obtained,  to  test  the 
thoroughness  of  it,  and  to  furnish  employment  for  the 
pupils,  more  of  the  mechanical  sort,  such  as  drawing, 
writing,  etc.,  which  can  be  done  alone.  Individual  work 
is  never  required  without  previous  preparation  under  the 
direction  of  the  teacher. 

In  the  first  school  years  but  very  little  home-work  is  ex- 
pected of  the  children,  and  in  later  years  probably  not 
more  than  an  average  of  one  hour  a  day.  Of  At  the  most 
course  this  applies  to  common  schools,  which  are  *"  average 
under  discussion,  and  not  to  the  higher  schools,  ^  ^^y  j,f 
in  which  very  much  more  home-work  is  re-  tome  study, 
quired,  but  in  which  the  method  of  instruction  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  lower  schools. 

2.  The  method  of  instruction  is  that  of  imparting.  The 
teacher  imparts,  and  the  pupil  receives.  For  example,  sup- 
pose the  subject  be  history :  The  teacher  re-  The  impart- 
lates  the  facts  and  events,  and  then  questions  ^^tg^^Mne 
the  pupils  as  to  the  facts  imparted.  The  same  employed, 
is  true  in  reading;  at  the  beginning  the  teacher  pronounces 
the  phonic  sound  and  the  pupil  repeats  it  after  him ;  and  so 
on  throughout  all  of  the  subjects  taught.     In  many  cases 


106  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

the  pnpil  has  no  text-book,  the  whole  of  his  knowledge  of 
the  subject  being  received  from  the  teacher.  Each  pupil 
has  a  blank  book  for  each  subject  in  which  he  enters  work 
that  has  been  mastered,  the  teacher  dictating,  or  it  being 
copied  from  the  blackboard.  These  exercise-books  are 
models  of  cleanliness,  neatness,  correct  language,  good  pen- 
manship, and  accuracy.  They  are  examined  by  the  teacher, 
corrected,  and  criticised.  They  are  an  im- 
portance of  portant  tactor  in  the  education  of  the  child,  as 
the  exercise  they  show  the  results  of  his  work  and  incul- 
cate excellent  habits.  While  they  cost  a  great 
deal  of  labor  to  the  teacher,  they  put  the  finishmg  touch 
upon  woik,  and  therefore  are  considered  a  good  expendi- 
ture of  time.  As  the  school-inspector  and  visitors  may  see 
these  books,  the  children  take  great  pains  to  have  them 
correct  as  well  as  neat. 

This  method  of  instruction  makes  the  pupil  almost  en- 
tirely dependent  upon  the  teacher  fqr  all  of  his  informa- 
tion, and  he  soon  comes  to  accept  what  is  given  without 
question,  and  in  many  matters  without  much  thought. 
As  the  school  has  no  library  for  his  use,  and  as  he  has  no 
books  of  his  own,  there  is  no  alternative  but  for  the  pupil 
to  accept  his  teacher  as  his  encycolpaedia.  Hence  when 
the  child  leaves  school,  while  full  of  information  on  the 
subjects  of  the  school  course  and  such  other  matters  as  his 
teacher  has  been  able  to  teach  him,  while  he  is  trained 
in  those  subjects  thoroughly  and  understands  them,  yet  he 
has  not  learned  to  help  himself,  to  go  to  books  for  informa- 
tion. Being  separated  then  from  his  teacher,  his  chief 
source  of  information,  his  education  is  apt  to  cease  as  soon 
as  he  leaves  school.  That  such  a  method  is  faulty  goes 
without  saying.  The  child  must  be  led  to  go  to  books,  to 
make  research,  to  experiment  and  invent,  to  think  for  him- 
self, and  then  his  education  will  continue  long  after  his 
Bchool-days  are  over. 


Method  of  Instruction.  107 

The  German  child  when  he  leaves  school  usually  settles 
into  his  sphere  of  life,  content  with  the  knowledge  he 
possesses,  inasmuch  as  he  has  fulfilled  the  requirements  of 
the  law,  satisfied  with  his  lot,  and  with  but  few  aspirations 
for  anything  higher.  True,  it  is  difficult  for  him  to  earn 
his  living.  He  must  work  long  hours  and  for  little  pay,  and 
therefore  has  neither  the  time  nor  the  means  for  self- 
improvement.  But  the  fact  of  his  having  these  hindrance;: 
does  not  fully  account  for  the  little  mterest  •v^gakness  o 
which  the  common  people  of  Germany  show  in  the  impart- 
their  own  intellectual  growth;  the  difficulty  is  *«  method, 
with  the  method  of  instruction,  which  fails  to  make  the 
pupils  independent,  and  leaves  them  helpless  as  soon  as  they 
leave  school  and  no  longer  have  their  fountain  of  knowl- 
edge, the  teacher,  at  hand. 

In  the  schools  for  the  better  classes  practically  the  same 
method  obtains.  But  the  children  are  not  obliged  to  enter 
immediately  upon  hard  work  for  daily  bread  as  soon  as  they 
leave  school,  and  therefore  they  show  more  inclination  to 
intellectual  matters,  though  not  as  much  as  could  be  de- 
sired. So  the  trouble  must  be  charged  to  the  two  causes, 
the  method  of  instruction  and  the  conditions  of  life.* 

3.  The  teachers  never  make  use  of  a  book  in  giving  in- 
struction. They  have  the  matter  well  in  hand,  which 
comes  from  the  splendid  general  preparation  received  by 
them  in  the  teachers'  seminary,  and  from  the  special  prep- 
aration made  for  the  individual  lesson.  Thereby  the 
teacher  is  able  to  throw  his  whole  soul  into  his  teaching, 
and  his  work  is  not  hampered  nor  made  ineffective  by  de- 
pendence upon  a  text-book.     He  holds  the  attention  of 

*  Frau  Schrader,  the  neice  of  Froebel,  and  the  leader  in  the  Berlin 
Kindergarten  work,  said  to  the  writer.  "We  are  preached  to,  and 
lectured  to,  and  poured  into  by  teachers  in  the  schools,  and  still  we 
as  a  people  are  made  stupid  by  it." 


108  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

his  pupils,  keeps  them  interested,  and  therefore  has  no 
trouble  with  discipline.  He  usually  stands,  though  there 
is  no  rule  forbidding  him  from  sitting  when  he  pleases. 

4.  In  every  possible  way  the  instruction  is  illustrated  by 
objects,  drawings,  and  concrete  examples.  And  yet  objects 
are  not  used  except  as  a  means  to  an  end.  They  are  not 
used  for  the  purpose  of  attracting  interest  in  themselves, 
bnt  for  the  purpose  of  making  clear  the  lesson  which  the 
teacher  has  in  mind.  Therefore  simple  objects,  few  in 
number,  are  used  so  as  not  to  detract  from  the  main  pur- 
pose. Thus  in  teaching  a  number  the  reckoning  apparatus 
is  generally  the  only  object  used.  The  use  of  many  kinds 
of  objects  would  awaken  interest  in  the  objects  themselves, 
Dst  of  com-  t^^^reby,  in  part  at  least,  defeating  the  purpose, 
parativeiy  which  is  the  teaching  of  the  number.  The  use 
few  objects,  ^j  objects  is  abandoned  when  they  are  no  longer 
necessary ;  and  yet  if  a  child  finds  it  difficult  to  compre- 
hend a  subject  illustration  is  always  used,  even  to  the  oldest 
pupils. 

6.  The  pupils  sit  erect  and  quiet  on  long  benches,  which 
sometimes  reach  entirely  across  the  schoolroom,  attentive 
to  the  instruction  of  the  teacher.  When  he  asks  a  question, 
they  raise  the  index  finger  until  he  calls  on  one,  who  rises 
Short  and  gives  the  answer,  always  in  full  sentences, 

answers  the  The  questions  usually  require  short  answers, 
(mi  sen-  ^^^  pupils  even  in  the  upper  classes  seldom 
fences.  being  called  upon  to  give  a  continued  series  of 

original  statements,  as  is  necessary  in  the  discussion  of  a 
topic,  for  example.  Material  that  has  been  committed  to 
memory  of  course  is  repeated  as  a  whole.  When  the 
teacher  wishes  a  pupil  to  come  to  the  blackboard  or  map, 
all  that  sit  between  him  and  the  end  of  the  seat  must  step 
out  to  let  him  pass.  Only  one  or  two  can  be  called  up  at 
once,  as  there  is  blackboard  space  only  for  the  teacher's 
use.     The  seating  arrangement  is  therefore  very  inconven- 


Method  of  Instruction,  109 

ient,  but  the  teacher  does  not  call  many  pupils  to  the 
front. 

6.  The  lesson  usually  begins  with  a  short  review  of  the 
preceding  lesson  to  serve  as  a  connecting  link  between  the 
old  and  the  new  material.  The  teacher  thus  fixes  the 
knowledge  already  imparted,  discovering  that  which  has 
not  been  fully  mastered,  and  paves  the  way  for  the  new 
lesson.  He  then  states  what  is  to  be  done  in  the  present 
hour,  and  proceeds  to  give  the  instruction  as  already  de- 
scribed in  No.  2.  Lastly,  he  questions  his  pupils  upon  the 
lesson  just  taught,  repeating  his  questions  in  different 
forms  until  satisfied  that  the  pupils  have  gained  the  re- 
quired mastery  of  the  subject. 

These  are  the  prominent  features  of  classroom-work  in  a 
German  school.  The  teacher  insists  upon  rigid  discipline 
that  has  a  tendency  to  repress  rather  than  stimulate,  to 
hinder  rather  than  awaken  mental  activity.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  a  mistaken  idea  that  it  is  harsh  or  unreasonable. 
One  is  apt  to  attribute  the  rigid  manner  to  a  ^^  Gennan 
lack  of  humane  feeling.  Such  a  conclusion  is  teacher  not 
far  from  the  truth.  Respect  for  law  is  incor-  *  ty^*°*- 
porated  into  all  branches  of  German  life — in  the  army,  in 
official  life,  in  the  whole  system  of  society.  The  teacher 
expects  it  of  his  pupils,  and  the  pupils  fully  expect  to  give 
it.  Perhaps  under  this  system  of  government,  and  under 
the  condition  of  things  in  Germany,  the  present  form  of 
disciplme  in  the  schools  is  necessary.  It  certainly  is  not  a 
hardship,  and  there  are  many  arguments  in  its  favor.  The 
children  learn  obedience,  respect  for  law,  promptness  and 
faithfulness  in  the  discharge  of  duty,  respect  for  their 
seniors,  proper  carriage  and  control  of  the  body,  power  of 
concentrating  the  whole  attention  upon  the  matter  in  hand, 
and  constancy  of  purpose.  All  of  these  are  important  fac- 
toi-s  in  education,  factors  that  are  too  often  neglected  in 
the  American  schools, 


110  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

While  this  side  of  the  German  teacher's  character  stands 
out  perhaps  most  prominently,  and  to  a  superficial  observer 
will  appear  as  the  only  side,  there  is  another 
est  of  teacii-  side  which  shows  him  to  be  the  most  humane  of 
ers  In  their  men,  to  really  love  his  pupils,  and  to  most  ear- 
'"'  "'  nestly  seek  their  truest  good  and  real  welfare. 

This  shows  itself  in  the  schoolroom  and  out  of  it ;  in  a  per- 
sonal interest  in  the  child,  and  in  an  interest  in  his  home 
and  family ;  while  engaged  in  school  exercises  and  while  on 
excursions  where  children  and  teacher  come  into  closest 
relations  of  sympathy  and  love;  in  the  interest  shown  in 
the  moral  development  and  the  immortal  welfare  of  the 
bemgs  committed  to  his  care.  The  German  teacher  loves 
his  pupils  with  fatherly  love,  therefore  he  can  administer 
discipline  when  necessary,  because  he  looks  into  the  future 
and  will  spare  the  child  from  greater  pain  and  possible 
ruin.  On  the  other  hand,  the  children  not  only  have 
respect  for  their  teacher,  but  also  love,  knowing  him  to 
be  their  best  friend. 


Application,  111 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


APPLICATION. 


We  now  turn  to  the  discussion  of  what  the  last  three 
chapters  suggest  for  the  American  school.  Many  of  the 
ideas  have  already  been  adopted  in  many  schools  since  Hor- 
ace Mann  visited  the  schools  of  Germany  and  wrote  his 
Reports,  and  under  the  influence  of  Col.  Parker  later.  So 
many  of  the  reforms  indicated  have  already  made  a  begin- 
ning, and  in  some  instances  have  outstripped  Germany 
herself. 

We  shall  discuss  the  lessons  that  are  to  be  gathered  from 
the  German  schools  that  will  be  a  benefit  to  America,  and 
not  those  that  are  inapplicable.     What  can  we 
apply  for  the  good  of  our  schools  is  the  all-im-   good  and 
portant  question,  and  not  the  criticism  of  wrong  ifnore  the 
practices,  nor  the  presumptuous  attempt  to  re- 
form the  German  schools.     There  is  much  that  is  good  in 
them,  and  it  is  the  good,  wherever  found,  that  we  should 
appropriate.     The  design  is  to  suggest  reforms  which  must 
enlist  the  combined  action  of  school  authorities  and  teachers 
in  order  to  be  successfully  carried  out.     We  therefore  lay 
down  the  following  propositions  suggested  by  the  German 
school  system : 

1.  The  oversight  of  school  authorities  should  extend  to 
all  schools,  private  as  well  as  public.  As  the  state  fixes  a 
minimum  of  training  necessary  for  citizenship,  and  as  it 
guarantees  to  parents  the  right  to  choose  whether  that  shall 
be  attained  in  public  schools  or  in  private  manner,  to  be 
assured  that  the  required  end  is  reached  the  state  must 


113  School  Systems  of  Germany » 

oversee  the  private  instruction  as  well  as  the  public. 
Freedom  as  This  does  not  interfere  with  the  freedom  of 
to  manner  of  private  schools  excepting  to  require  that  at 
tiie^*ciiu-  ^^^^^  ^^®  minimum  course  of  study  is  carried 
dren  left  to  out.  The  state  clearly  has  a  right  to  insist 
the  famUy.  upon  the  education  of  all  children  as  a  means 
of  self-preservation,  and  therefore  must  have  a  right  to 
inspect  the  institutions  that  carry  it  out. 

2.  Too  many  examinations  should  be  avoided,  the  judg- 
ment of  the  teacher  as  to  fitness  for  promotion  being  better 
than  any  examination.  That  there  should  be  examina- 
tions is  fully  recognized,  but  they  should  be  carried  out  so 
as  to  awaken  as  little  excitement  as  possible,  and  should 
not  be  the  single  test  of  fitness  for  promotion.  They  may 
enter  as  a  factor,  but  only  as  a  small  one.  Their  object 
should  be  to  show  the  weaknesses  of  the  instruction,  so  that 
the  same  errors  can  be  avoided  in  the  future ;  to  crystallize 
the  knowledge  in  the  mind  of  the  child ;  to  strengthen  him 
Object  of  ill  manner  of  expression,  whether  it  be  written 
examination,  or  oral;  and  to  give  him  self-command  and 
readiness  in  bringing  forward  the  knowledge  he  possesses. 
They  should  not  be  crowded  into  two  or  three  days'  time, 
but  plenty  of  time  should  be  taken,  covering  perhaps  two 
or  three  of  the  last  weeks  of  the  term  or  year.  They 
should  occur  at  the  time  of  the  regular  lesson,  thereby  not 
requiring  a  special  programme  for  examinations,  and  without 
disturbing  the  order  of  the  whole  school.  They  should  be 
conducted  by  the  regular  teacher  under  the  direction  of  the 
principal  of  the  school.  The  more  they  can  be  considered 
as  unusual  events,  the  more  quietly  they  can  be  conducted, 
the  more  effective  they  will  be,  and  the  more  nearly  they 
will  answer  their  pedagogical  purpose. 

3.  All  of  the  common  schools  of  a  state  should  be  graded 
according  to  one  general  plan.  This  plan  should  be  so 
simple  that  the  district  school  could  meet  its  requirements. 


Application.  113 

Village  and  city   school  systems    would  be    free    to  go 

as  far  beyond  those  requirements  as  they  are  able  to, 

but  in   conformity  with  the  fundamental   requirements. 

There  should  be  three   general    divisions    of 

the  school  course,  and  the  same  general  names  divided Tnto 

of  primary,  intermediate,  and  grammar  which  tiiree  eenerai 

are  now  used  could  be  continued.     The  coun-  ff*?*' "'' 

diTislons. 

try  school,  graded  on  this  basis,  has  an  im- 
mense advantage  over  the  present  unorganized,  unsys- 
tematized condition  of  things.  The  teacher  then  would 
have  some  guide  for  his  work,  and  it  would  be  es- 
pecially helpful  to  a  new  teacher.  There  would  then 
be  a  definite  purpose  marked  out  which  would  act  as 
a  great  blessing  to  the  schools.  When  pupils  change  to 
another  school,  there  would  be  a  common  ground  for  grad- 
ing them,  so  that  there  would  not  be  so  great  loss  of  time. 
Of  course  in  schools  where  possible,  as  at  present,  there 
would  be  subdivisions  into  as  many  classes  as  are  necessary, 
but  even  these  should  conform  to  the  minimum  require- 
ments. 

4.  The  main  object  of  the  teacher'' s  work  is  to  instruct, 
and  not  hear  lessons.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  Ger- 
man "  imparting  "  method  should  be  employed,  nor  does  it 
mean  that  the  American  "  recitation  "  method  should  be 
continued.  We  have  pointed  out  the  vital  weakness  of  the 
former,  (See  page  105.)  Measured  by  apparent  results 
the  *'  imparting"  method,  as  practised  in  Germany,  is  not 
an  unqualified  success.  It  does  not  discharge  the  child 
from  the  school  with  a  desire  for  more  knowledge,  and  with 
ability  to  gain  it  independently. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  "  hearing  lessons  "  method,  in 
general  practice  in  America,  while  excusable  in  an  un- 
trained teacher  (if  one  may  use  the  term),  cannot  be  ac- 
cepted as  the  best  that  should  be  employed.  The  middle 
way  between  these  two  methods  is  the  one  that  will  secure 


114  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

the  best  educational  results.  The  teacher  must  not  rob 
the  child  of  the  pleasure  of  discovering  for  him- 
be  led  to  self,  and  at  the  same  time  destroy  all  desire 
find  out  for  for  original,  independent  work,  as  astrict  adher- 
ence to  the  German  method  certainly  does,  nor 
must  he,  on  the  other  hand,  simply  assign  so  many  pages 
for  him  to  learn  without  previous  explanation  or  instruc- 
tion, and  then  afterwards  "hear"  what  he  has  learned. 
This  method  is  worse  than  the  former  in  that  it  may  be 
carried  out  by  untrained  teachers,  and  makes  possible  their 
admission  to  the  schoolroom.  The  German  method  can 
only  be  carried  out  by  well-trained  instructors.  The 
happy  medium  between  the  two  is  what  is  desired,  namely, 
the  introduction  and  explanation  of  the  new  lesson  by  the 
_  teacher  sufficient  to  awaken  interest,  then  re- 

um  between  niove  difficulties  that  are  too  great  for  the  child, 
the  "impart-  and  set  him  on  the  way  to  master  the  work  set 
"hearing"  *  before  him.  This  will  awaken  self-reliance  with- 
method  to  be  out  discouraging,  give  incentive  to  work  with- 
chosen.  ^^^  depending  upon  the  teacher,  and  set  the 

child  to  think  for  himself,  which  is  the  highest  end  to  be 
sought. 

To  give  this  kind  of  instruction  requires  the  most  skilful 
talent  and  teachers  of  the  very  best  pedagogical  training. 
To  know  when  to  help  and  when  to  leave  alone,  how  to 
incite  to  self -activity,  how  to  lead  the  child  and  not  carry 
Highest  type  him,  how  to  bring  out  the  best  that  is  in  the 
of  teaching,  child  and  inspire  him  to  an  eager  love  and 
desire  for  knowledge,  requires  the  highest  type  of  teaching 
ability. 

Herbart's  Formal  Steps  of  instruction  give  a  key  to  all 
that  the  teacher  should  do  in  a  period  of  instruction.  They 
are  as  follows  : 

a.  The  preparation,  which  includes  the  bringing  to- 
gether of  all  of  the  necessary  materials,  the  review  of  the 


Application.  115 

preceding   lesson  so  that  the    new  knowledge   shall  be 
joined   to    and  built   upon  the  old,   and  the  Herbart's 
awakening  of  the  interest  in  the  subject  to  be  Jj^^'**^'" 
presented   by  some   illustration,   anecdote,   or  mended, 
other  means,  so  that  the  class  is  in  expectation  of  some- 
thing to  come. 

h.  TZtejoresew/a^tow  of  the  new  material.  This  calls  for 
the  skill  of  the  teacher  in  the  development  of  the  lesson  to 
bring  the  new  truths  home  to  the  understanding  of  the 
children.  The  teacher  should  dwell  upon  each  point  until 
it  is  clear  to  the  minds  of  his  pupils,  and  by  statement  and 
questioning  bring  the  matter  to  their  comprehension. 

c.  The  association.  The  new  ideas  should  be  associated 
with  old  ones  and  be  brought  to  form  a  part  of  the  thought- 
structure  of  the  child.  Thus  the  child  apperceives  the 
new,  appropriates  it  to  himself,  and  it  becomes  a  part  of 
his  intellectual  property.  If  the  process  of  association  is 
omitted,  much  knowledge  is  brought  to  the  threshold  of 
consciousness,  but  never  goes  any  farther,  and  is  therefore 
lost. 

d.  The  Review.  The  object  of  review  is  to  fix,  to  bind 
together  with  past  lessons,  to  make  sure  that  all  has  been 
comprehended.  The  late  Prof.  Stoy  used  to  say  the 
watchword  of  the  school-teacher  must  be,  *'  Review,  re- 
view, everlasting  review. ' ' 

e.  The  application.  Finally,  the  new  material  must  be 
applied  to  the  practical  things  of  life,  its  use  shown.  Pupils 
must  be  tested  as  to  whether  they  have  sufficiently  under- 
stood to  make  application  with  original  examples.  In  this 
way  the  teacher  not  simply  imparts,  but  seta  the  pupils  to 
original  thinking  and  prepares  them  for  further  research 
and  study. 

This  is  the  general  plan  of  a  '*  recitation  hour,"  though 
all  of  these  steps  will  not  be  necessary  for  each  recitation. 
This  becomes  not  only  a  period  of  recitation,  but  also  a 


116  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

period  of  instruction,  and  the  latter  characteristic  largely 
predominates,  as  it  very  properly  should. 

5.  The  natural  development  of  the  child  is  best  attained  by 
means  of  object-teachiiig.  Perhaps  American  schools  have 
applied  this  principle  more  generally  and  more  successfully 
than  any  other  that  the  German  schools  teach.  From  the 
time  of  Comenius  to  Pestalozzi  this  truth  has  been  brought 
forward  more  and  more.  The  teachings  of  Pestalozzi  have 
exerted  a  wide  influence  throughout  Germany,  until  the 
practice  everywhere  is  to  use  objects  and  experiments 
wherever  they  will  assist  in  instruction.  The  apparatus  is 
always  of  most  simple  character.  The  tendency  in  many 
American  scJiools  is  to  make  use  of  many  objects,  and  the 
chief  attention  of  the  pupils  naturally  is  given  to  the 
varied,  attractive  objects  rather  than  to  the  main  end  to 
be  sought. 

This  is  clearly  an  error  from  a  pedagogical  standpoint. 
Every  bit  of  attention  that  the  object  attracts  in  and  for 
itself  is  just  so  much  withdrawn  from  the  main  object  in 
view,  the  lesson  to  be  taught.  Therefore  objects  and  ex- 
periments should  be  used  to  teach  the  truth  to  be  taught, 
and  should  never  be  used  when  they  are  not  needed.  In  a 
word,  when  an  object  will  serve  a  real  purpose,  it  is  used, 
otherwise  not;  and  this  use,  wliile  most  frequent  in  the 
early  school  years,  should  never  be  omitted,  however  old 
the  pupil,  when  it  is  needed  to  illustrate,  to  establish,  or 
to  make  clear  a  truth. 

There  remains  another  very  important  subject  suggested 
by  the  German  schools  for  us  to  consider,  and  that  is  re- 
ligion in  the  schools.  Because  of  its  great  importance, 
and  because  of  the  difficulties  connected  with  the  question, 
we  shall  devote  a  special  chapter  to  it. 


Religion  in  the  Schools,  117 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

EELIQION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS. 

The  corner-stone  of  the   German  course  ot  study  in  the 
common  schools  is  rehgion.      More  hours  |)er  week  are 
given  to  it  (5-6  throughout  the  wliole  course)  than  to  any 
other  subject,  with  the  exception  of  German,  which  in- 
cludes, however,  reading,  writing,  spelling,  and  grammar. 
From  the  first  the  main  purpose  of  the  schools  was  de- 
clared to  be  "  to  train  the  youth  to  be  God-tear-  imp^jj-tance 
ing  citizens."      The  late  Prof.  Stoy  of  Jena  of reiigrion in 
asserted  that  "not  only  the  head  and  hand.  "»«c»io«i»- 
but  also  the  heart,  must  be  educated.  '     The  work  of  edu- 
cation has  been  declared  to  be  the  formation  of  character, 
and  there  can  be  no  well-rounded  character  if  the  heart- 
culture  has  been  neglected.     All  of  the  powers  of  the  indi- 
vidual must  be  well  balanced  and  harmonious  in  their  de- 
velopment.    An  abnormal  development  in  one  direction  to 
the  neglect  of  other  powers  does  not  produce  the  ideal  man. 
Every  educator  in  Germany  recognizes  the  importance  of 
religious  instruction  in  the  schools,  and  even  those  political 
parties  that  demand  the  removal  ot  the  influence  of  the 
Church  from  the  schools  do  not  for  a  moment  think  of 
throwing  religion  out  of  them.     Some  persons  would  lessen 
the  number  of  hours,  and  others  would  change 
the  character  of  the  instruction.     Prof.  Paulsen  tiiat*reiu^oii 
would  do  away  with  the  confessional  character  mtut  be 
of  the  instruction,  leaving  that  to  the  Church  ^^^^ 
and  home,  and  retain  the  historical  and  literary 
treatment  of  the  Bible,  and  the  historical  development  of  the 


118  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

Church.  The  teachers  generally  would  leave  the  instruc- 
tion as  it  is,  but  would  have  the  relations  of  the  Church, 
or  rather  its  authority  over  religious  instruction  in  the 
schools,  done  away  with,  not  because  of  the  religious  ques- 
tion, but  because  the  pastors  are  not  pedagogically  trained 
men.     (See  page  156.) 

The  value  of  religious  instruction  and  its  necessity  are 
everywhere  recognized,  and  it  is  not  probable  that  any  ma- 
terial change  will  take  place  for  a  long  time  to  come.  The 
instruction  in  the  evangelical  schools  is  given  by  the  regu- 
lar teachers,  that  of  the  Catholic  schools  sometimes  by 
priests  who  receive  no  pay  from  the  state,  while  in  the 
higher  schools  the  religious  instruction  is  given  by  special 
teachers  theologically  trained.  Each  child  receives  special 
training  from  his  pastor  for  some  time  before  confirmation 
as  a  preparation  for  that  important  event  in  the  child's  life. 
This,  however,  is  done  outside  of  the  school.  The  fact 
that  the  Church  is  the  mother  of  the  schools,  historically, 
having  long  had  them  under  her  charge,  that  Church  and 
state  are  united,  that  the  people  are  nearly  all  included  in 
the  two  general  religious  bodies,  evangelistic  and  Catholic, 
that  all  schools  are  confessional  on  these  two  lines,  makes 
the  problem  of  religion  in  the  schools  in  Germany  a  vastly 
different  one  from  that  of  America.  The  absence  of  tradi- 
tions governing  the  question,  the  division  of  the  Evangelical 
Church  into  many  sects,  the  utter  severance  of 
in  Anwrica"  Church  and  state  in  the  latter  country,  make  the 
very  differ-  problem  very  difficult  to  solve.     And  yet  its  so- 

ent  from  that  i^^i^n  is  of  the  utmost  interest  to  thoughtful 
of  Germany.  ^ 

educators  and  well-wishers  of  the  nation.     We 

are  therefore  brought  face  to  face  with  the  following  ques- 
tions: 1.  Is  religious  instruction  a  necessary  part  of  educa- 
tion ?  2.  Are  the  American  youth  properly  receiving  such 
instruction  ?  3.  If  not,  ought  the  state  to  undertake  it  ? 
4.  How  shall  it  be  done  under  the  peculiar  existing  con- 


keligion  in  the  Schools,  119 

ditiong?      Taking   up   these   questions  in  order,  let  us 
discuss : 

1.  Is  religious  instruction  a  necessary  part  of  education  t 
All  educators  agree  in  answering  this  question  aflBrmatively. 
The  aim  of  education  is  to  form  character,  and  there  can 
be  no  well-rounded  character  where  the  religious  side  has 
been  neglected.  The  hand,  the  head,  and  the  heart  as 
well  must  be  cultivated.  Where  the  first  two  alone  are 
developed,  the  best  and  most  important  part  of  j^^^  j^^^^ 
our  being  remains,  that  which  has  to  do  not  andbeartto 
alone  with  our  immortal  welfare,  but  also  with  J>«  trained, 
every  side  of  life  here  among  our  neighbors  and  our  fellow- 
men.  Every  human  being  possesses  the  religious  instinct, 
whether  it  be  the  savage  with  his  misty  notions  of  the  Great 
Spirit  and  the  happy  hunting-grounds,  or  the  most  civil- 
ized and  intelligent  Christian,  enlightened  by  the  revela- 
tions of  the  Diviae  Spirit.  The  longing  for  something 
higher,  for  something  beyond  the  sphere  of  this  life's  ac- 
tivities, for  something  that  comforts  and  sustains  in  this 
life  and  affords  hope  for  the  future,  is  inherent  in  every 
human  breast.  Therefore  there  can  be  no  proper  develop- 
ment of  the  child  in  which  his  religious  side  is  omitted. 
"Education  in  the  hands  of  a  wicked  person  is  a  dangerous 
weapon,"  said  one  of  America's  greatest  statesmen.  The 
teacher  must  see  in  each  child  the  future  man,  and  no 
teacher  can  conceive  of  a  perfect  ideal  man,  largely  his 
own  creation,  whose  heart-powers,  whose  religious  char- 
acter, have  not  also  been  developed  with  all  of  his  other 
powers.  It  is  not  suflBcient  to  train  the  child  for  the  few 
years  of  life  he  has  to  spend  here,  but  he  must  also  be  pre- 
pared for  that  more  important  life,  the  hope  and  expecta- 
tion of  which  80  largely  influence  the  present. 
And  so  we  say  that  religious  instruction  is  necessary: 
a.  For  psychological  reason 'i.  The  whole  being  of  the 
child  is  not  developed  if  the  religior.s  side  is  omitted,  and 


1^  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

without  that  the  education  is  incomplete.  The  soul  seeks 
light,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  education  to  unfold  it ;  from 
the  earliest  years  the  child  seeks  knowledge  of  the  infinite, 
and  parents  and  teachers  must  open  all  fountains  of  truth 
that  they  possess  to  satisfy  that  longing ;  during  the  early 
years  while  the  child  is  in  school  the  heart  is  most  sus- 
ceptible to  religious  truth,  and  therefore  these  years  must 
be  employed  in  establishing  and  fixing  it ;  *  the  character 
is  not  well  rounded  and  the  powers  of  the  soul  developed 
if  this  vital  side  of  education  is  neglected. 

h.  For  moral  reasons.  The  religion  of  Jesus  is  the  best 
of  all  religions,  not  simply  because  it  is  a  divine  revelation, 
The  Chris-  but  also  because  it  furnishes  the  best  moral  code, 
tian  reUgion  ^j^g  basis  of  morals  is  the  Christian  religion, 
moral  How,  then,  can  a  structure  of  morals  be  built 

reUgion.  without  taking  into  account  the  foundation  upon 
which  they  stand,  and  without  which  they  could  not  be 
maintained  for  a  moment  ?  The  young  man  who  leaves 
school  without  a  proper  sense  of  duty,  without  respect  for 
the  personal  and  property  rights  of  his  fellow-men,  with- 
out a  knowledge  of  right  and  wrong — such  a  young  man 
takes  but  little  with  him  from  the  school  that  goes  to  make 
up  real  manhood ;  indeed,  he  is  quite  liable  to  become  a  dan- 
ger to  society.  It  is  a  serious  question  whether  the  increase 
of  peculation  and  the  deterioration  of  public  morals  are 
not  a  result  of  the  complete  secula '."zation  of  the  schools. 
Such  would  certainly  be  a  natural  result  if  it  be  found 
that  there  are  no  other  sufficient  means  of  securing  the 
necessary  moral  training.  Concerning  this  we  shall  make 
inquiry  later. 

c.  For  practical  reasons.  There  is  hardly  a  subject  in 
the  school  curriculum  that  is  not  closely  connected  with 

*  Prof.  Earl  Barnes  tliinks  after  much  investigation  that  the  child 
is  most  orthodox  from  1 1-14  years  of  age.  After  that  time  the  period 
of  unbelief  begins  if  he  is  not  established. 


Religion  in  the  Schools.  121 

religion  in  some  phase,  and  the  abolition  of  religion  from 
the  schools  therefore  prevents  the  teaching  of  a  great  deal 
of  truth.  Take  history,  for  example :  How  can  the  history 
of  New  England  be  taught  without  mention  of  the  Puri- 
tans, and  of  what  use  is  bare  mention  of  the  Puritans  with- 
out discussion  of  the  sublime  religious  purpose  which  was 
the  mainspring  of  all  of  their  motives  and  actions  ?  Or 
the  history  of  Germany,  omitting  the  Reformation  and 
Luther,  the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  Gustavus  Adolphus  ? 
One  can  hardly  take  up  any  period  of  the  history  of  any 
country  without  being  compelled  to  discuss  religious  topics, 
or  else  omit  the  very  vital  thing  of  the  whole  matter. 

Again,  take  geography:  How  often  political  divisions 
have  been  decided  upon  religious  grounds.  Then  the  races 
of  the  earth  and  their  religions  form  an  important  part  of 
that  study.  Teachers  may  explain  tlje  religions  of  Con- 
fucius, Buddha,  or  Mohammed,  but  are  not  allowed  a  word 
concerning  the  most  vital  matter  of  all  to  their  pupils,  the 
religion  of  Jesus  ! 

And  so  it  is  with  astronomy,  with  all  branches  of  science, 
and  with  almost  every  school  subject;  it  is  not  only  most 
natural  and  easy  to  awaken  a  reverent  spirit,  but  sometimes 
it  is  almost  unavoidable.  Is  it  any  wonder  that  the  Ger- 
mans consider  religion  the  comer-stone  of  the  educational 
structure  ?  So  for  practical  reasons  freedom  to  teach  relig- 
ious topics  would  remove  many  obstacles  needlessly  placed 
in  the  way  all  through  the  school  work,  and  the  wise 
teacher,  whatever  be  his  confession  or  that  of  his  pupils, 
would  give  offense  to  none,  and  parents  of  all  shades  of  re- 
ligious belief  would  be  satisfied,  because  their  children  were 
being  taught  the  whole  truth. 

2.  Are  the  American  youth  properly  receiving  such  in- 
struction 9  The  state  relegates  the  religious  instruction  to 
the  family,  the  family  largely  to  the  Church,  and  the 
Church  to  the  Sunday-school.     It  does  not  require  a  close 


122  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

observer  to  see  that  there  is  a  decided  disposition  on  the 
part  of  parents  to  leave  the  religious  training  of  their  chil- 
dren with  the  Sunday-school  just  as  they  leave  the  secular 
training  with  the  day-school.  The  Germans  require  five 
hours  of  religious  instruction  a  week,  at  least,  for  eight 
years,  by  trained  teachers,  attendance  being  regular.  With 
us  there  is  one  hour  of  Sunday-school  per  week,  with  less 
Inefficiency  ^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^  hour's  instruction,  often  by  poor 
of  the  Sun-  teachers,  attendance  being  voluntary  and  gen- 
give'^eces-*"  ^^^^'j  irregular.  As  an  actual  fact  our  youth 
sary  religious  obtain  a  very  meagre  knowledge  of  the  Bible, 
instruction,  j^q  knowledge  of  Christian  literature,  and,  un- 
less they  go  to  college,  but  little  instruction  in  ethics. 
Thus  an  important  part  of  the  education  of  every  man  is 
clearly  sadly  neglected.  No  man  can  be  called  well  edu- 
cated who  has  not  a  knowledge  ot  sacred  history  and  litera- 
ture, to  say  nothing  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Christian 
Church. 

But  this  is  not  the  whole  statement  of  the  case  by  any 
means.  The  statistics  of  the  American  Sunday-school 
Union  show  that  the  total  number  of  Sunday-school  schol- 
ars, including  adults  and  infants,*  is  only  about  fifty  per 
cent  of  the  total  number  of  children  of  school  age,  5-21 
years.  So  more  than  half  of  the  youth  of  the  land  do  not 
have  even  the  meagre,  irregular,  unsatisfactory  instruction 
of  the  Sunday-school;  and  as.  the  parents  who  do  not  send 
their  children  to  the  Sunday-school  are  least  of  all  apt  to 
teach  them  the  Bible  at  home,  we  are  driven  to  the  painful 
conclusion  that  a  large  portion  of  the  growing  youth  of 
America  receive  scarcely  any  religious  instruction. 

Having  established  the  position  that  religious  instruction 
is  a  necessary  part  of  education,  and  that  the  American 

*  Under  "adults  "  come  persons  often  well  along  in  years  who  be- 
long to  the  Bible  classes,  and  under  "infants"  many  children  who 
have  not  yet  reached  their  fifth  year. 


Religion  in  the  Schools.  123 

youth  are  not  getting  such  education,  we  turn  to  the  third 
question : 

3.  Ought  the  state  to  undertake  it  9  That  the  state 
shall  undertake  the  religious  training  of  the  youth  in 
America,  where  state  and  Church  are  separate,  in  the  same 
sense  as  in  (rermauy,  where  they  are  united,  cannot  be  ex- 
pected. But  as  such  instruction  is  necessary  as  preparation 
lor  good  citizenship,  and  as  there  is  no  other  sufficient 
means  of  securing  it,  it  seems  clear  that  the  state  must 
do  it.  But  how  far  shall  the  state  go  in  the  matter  of 
religious  instruction  ?  Clearly  the  state  cannot  ^j^^  ^^^^ 
enter  the  field  of  dogmatic  theology,  nor  teach  cannot  teach 
any  particular  confession.  These  must  ever  in  tiieoiogy. 
America  be  left  with  the  family  and  the  Church  in  her 
various  branches  and  shades  of  belief.  But  the  history 
and  literature  of  the  Bible,  so  essential  to  the  education  of 
every  individual,  certainly  can  be  taught  in  the  public 
schools  without  offense  to  any  one.  Then,  too,  the  moral 
lessons  taught  by  the  Bible  as  nowhere  else  should  form  a 
basis  of  systematic  moral  instruction.  Take,  for  example, 
the  story  of  Joseph  revealing  himself  to  his  brethren  when 
they  came  down  to  Egypt  to  buy  com :  there  is  nothing 
in  literature  which  furnishes  such  an  abundance 
of  material  for  moral  instruction.  The  crime  The  story  of 
of  the  brethren,  repaid  by  the  magnanimity,  ^^"^0^"  *r. 
generosity,  brotherly  love,  unselfishness,  for-  ai  lessons, 
giveness  of  Joseph,  awakening  in  them  a  sense 
of  shame  and  penitence  for  their  wrong,  furnishes  most  for- 
cible illustrations  for  classroom  use  which  could  not  fail  to 
bear  fruit.  And  yet  because  this  beautiful  story  is  found 
in  the  Bible  it  may  not  be  used  in  the  school  for  laying 
the  foundations  of  right  thinking  and  acting  in  the  lives 
of  our  pupils ! 

Then  the  life  of  Jesus  and  his  eminent  disciples  of  all 
ages  should  be  studied,  not  for  the  purpose  of  developing 


124  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

a  system  of  faith,  but  to  discover  the  good  done  by  them, 
to  furnish  examples  of  good  lives,  and  to  learn  the  mighty 
influence  they  exerted,  and  the  impulses  they  started  to 
make  the  world  better.  The  study  of  Jesus,  Paul,  St. 
Augustine,  Bonifacius,  and  Luther  certainly  cannot  be  dan- 
gerous to  the  youth  of  any  nation ;  certainly  not  in  com- 
parison with  the  study  of  Alexander,  Caesar,  or  Napoleon. 
These  three  things  therefore  should  be  taught  in  schools 
under  control  of  the  state: 

1.  The  history  and  literature  of  the  Bible. 

2.  The  moral  lessons  of  the  Bible  based  upon  its  abun- 
dant illustrations. 

3.  The  life  of  Jesus  and  his  followers  as  an  inspiration 
and  example  to  the  children  of  the  present  generation. 

This  would  leave  the  confessional  character  of  religion 
still  to  the  family  and  the  Church,  and  would  not  trespass 
upon  this  most  sacred  of  rights,  but  would  supplement  and 
assist  it.  Such  instruction  would  be  welcomed  by  parents 
of  all  shades  of  faith,  and  Catholic  and  Protestant,  Jew 
and  Gentile,  believer  and  unbeliever,  would  feel  that  the 
common  school,  the  common  ground  on  which  all  meet 
with  equal  rights,  is  doing  something  to  train  and  educate 
the  noblest  faculties  of  their  children. 

This  brings  us  to  the  last  and  most  difficult  question 
of  all,  namely: 

4.  How  shall  religious  instruction  in  the  above  sense  he 
introduced  into  the  American  schools  f  *     As  most  of  the 

*  We  use  the  term  ' '  religious  instruction  "  in  the  absence  of  any 
better  term,  though  in  the  narrow,  strict  sense  it  will  be  recognized 
that  the  term  is  a  misnomer.  But  the  state  must  educate  for  citizen- 
ship, and  the  above  requirements  are  the  least  that  can  be  asked  of 
the  state.  With  the  preparation  thus  given  the  family  and  the 
Church  will  be  able  to  supplement  the  work  done  with  the  purely 
confessional  side,  and  thus  the  child  be  given  the  complete  religious 
training  so  necessary  to  full-rounded  character  pointed  out  at  the 


Religion  in  the  Schools.  125 

states  have  passed  laws  forbidding  the  use  of  the  Bible  in 
the  public  schools,  the  first  step  is  the  repeal  of  those  laws 
and  the  express  permission  to  use  it  under  the  above  limi- 
tations. It  is  possible  that  the  expulsion  of  the 
Bible  from  the  schools  has  worked  more  seri-  i^^,  excind- 
ous  results  than  those  who  demanded  it  h.ad  ing  the  Bible 
expected.  Eminent  Catholics  have  indicated  "**"*'y* 
as  much.  The  readmission  of  it  as  a  text-book  of  sacred 
history  and  literature,  and  of  morals,  would  not  mean  a 
tendency  to  unite  state  and  Church,  nor  a  trespassing  of 
the  one  upon  the  rights  of  the  other.  It  would  simply  be 
the  allowing  of  the  use  of  the  book  for  its  own  worth,  and 
for  its  value  in  deriving  the  lessons  to  be  used  in  the  train- 
ing of  an  important  side  of  the  human  character,  the  neg- 
lect of  which  is  a  danger  to  the  state.  It  would  not  pre- 
vent the  use  of  a  St.  James,  a  Douay,  or  a  revised  version, 
as  each  individual  may  please.  The  broad-minded  teacher 
is  not  bound  to  any  particular  text-book,  but  teaches  his 
subjects  topically,  allowing  his  pupils  to  obtain  the  facta 
from  many  sources.  The  Bible  would  not  be  restored  to 
its  old  place  to  be  used  as  a  part  of  recognized  religious  ex- 
ercises in  the  school,  but  as  a  text-book  with  other  text- 
books; thus  the  old  objections  to  its  use  fall  to  the  ground. 
The  second  step  is  the  adoption  by  the  state  board  of 
education  of  a  minimum  course  of  religious  study.  In  the 
absence  of  a  state  board  this  could  be  done  by  ReUgrion  a 
the  highest  school  authority  or  by  the  state  leg-  ^^J*  *^' 
islature.  All  of  the  schools  of  the  state  should  coarse, 
be  required  to  conform  to  this  minimum  course  in  religion 
the  same  as  in  other  subjects  (see  page  124),  but  each  in- 
beginning  of  this  chapter.  And  in  such  families  as  neglect  all  re- 
ligious training  of  their  children,  at  least  a  great  deal  will  have  been 
gained.  Perhaps  it  would  be  less  objectionable  to  Americans  if  the 
title  "Ethical  Instruction "  were  used,  though  that  does  not  quite 
cover  the  ground. 


126  School  Systems  oj  Germany. 

dividual  locality  would  bo  at  liberty  to  enlarge  and  extend 
the  course  according  to  its  ability  and  inclination.  This 
course  should  include  for  the  primary  grades  stories  from, 
the  Bible;  for  the  intermediate  grades  continuation  of  the 
stories,  with  introduction  to  the  history  and  literature  suit- 
able to  the  capacity  of  the  pupils ;  and  for  the  grammar 
grades  Bible  history  and  literature,  with  study  of  the  great 
characters  of  the  Christian  world.  The  moral  lessons  to  be 
derived  from  this  rich  material  are  never  to  be  lost  sight 
of,  but  are  to  be  practically  applied  wherever  possible. 

A  map  of  Palestine  is  essential  for  every  school  and 
should  be  freely  used  in  connection  with  the  instruction. 
Two  full  hours  a  week  should  be  given  to  this  subject.  In 
our  already  overcrowded  courses  of  study  this  may  seem 
difficult ;  but  if  the  subject  is  as  important  as  we  believe  it 
to  be  a  place  must  be  found  for  it.  It  will  be  found, 
however,  that  the  material  furnished  in  religious  instruc- 
tion supplements  many  other  subjects,  so  that  the  number 
of  hours  now  devoted  to  them  can  be  shortened  without 
loss  in  general  results,  and  indeed  even  without  loss  to 
these  subjects  themselves.  For  example,  the  reproduction 
Reunions  of  the  stories  from  the  Bible  supplements  lan- 
instmction  guage;  the  study  of  Bible  history  and  litera- 
ment  other  ^^^^  supplements  history,  reading,  and  litera- 
work.  ture ;  the  study  of  Palestine,   Paul's  journeys, 

the  spread  of  Christianity,  supplements  geography.  There- 
fore religious  study  can  be  introduced  with  no  loss  to  any 
of  the  subjects  now  taught,  but  with  an  immense  gain  to 
the  course  of  study,  and  a  vast  enrichment  of  the  fund  of 
knowledge  with  which  our  pupils  are  sent  out  into  the 
world. 

Finally,  every  opportunity  should  be  used  to  inform  the 
people  of  the  purpose  of  the  proposed  religious  instruction 
in  the  schools.  The  people  of  America  are  jealous  of  their 
religious  freedom,  and  anything  that  looks  like  trespassing 


Religion  in  the  Schools.  127 

upon  it  is  regarded  with  suspicion.  But  if  they  are  made 
to  see  that  this  is  no  attempt  in  that  direction — on  the  con- 
trary, that  it  only  makes  their  religious  rights  securer  in 
that  it  makes  their  children  intelligent  concerning  tliem ;  if 
they  learn  that  this  seeks  to  form  a  sound  basis 
of  morals,  and  prepares  the  way  for  them  and  ^^^  ^^^^^^  ^ 
their  Church  to  introduce  into  the  hearts  and  they  under- 
lives  of  their  children  their  own  peculiar  J^^e^* 
tenets;  in  a  word,  if  they  are  convinced  that 
this  movement  seeks  the  best  good  of  their  children,  they 
will  be  found,  and  can  only  be  found,  on  the  side  of  relig- 
ious instruction  in  the  common  schools.  Without  the 
consent  and  active  support  of  the  parents  no  law  can  avail, 
and  there  can  be  but  one  result,  and  that  is  failure.  There- 
fore by  pen  and  voice  all  friends  of  education  should  seek  to 
prepare  the  citizens  of  our  country  for  this  reform,  which 
is  of  so  great  moment,  not  alone  for  our  schools,  but  also  for 
the  youth  who  are  to  be  the  future  parents,  citizens,  and 
rulers  of  our  land. 


128  School  Systems  of  Germany » 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

SCHOOL  BUILDINGS. 

The  school  building  in  a  village  would  hardly  be  distin- 
guished from  a  residence  in  its  exterior  appearance.  It  is 
usually  a  two-story  brick  building,  one  floor  being  set  apart 
for  the  residence  of  the  family  of  the  teacher,  and  the 
other  for  the  school.  In  the  city  the  buildings  are  of 
course  much  larger,  being  arranged  for  the  accommodation 
in  large  cities  of  not  more  than  a  thousand  children,  and 
containing,  besides  the  schoolrooms,  a  faculty-room,  an 
audience-  or  assembly-hall,  and  living  rooms  for  the  princi- 
pal and  janitor.    For  location  care  is  taken  to  secure  a  quiet 

-        .  street  where  there  can  never  be  an  interference 

Separate 

schools  for  of  the  light  from  other  buildings.  In  many 
the  sexes.  cases  the  schools  are  erected  in  a  court  back 
from  the  street,  where  neither  street  noise  nor  shutting  off 
of  the  light  can  ever  disturb.  As  the  sexes  are  separated 
wherever  possible,  in  many  cases  a  boys'  school  occupies 
one  end  of  a  large  building  and  a  girls'  school  the  other 
end,  both  schools  having  common  use  of  the  same  yard  at 
different  times,  and  each  having  its  own  faculty,  from 
principal  down.  There  must  always  be  a  school-yard  or 
playground  for  the  children,  even  though  the  children  are 
seldom  allowed  to  play  in  it.  (See  page  81.)  The  build- 
ings are  never  more  than  three  stories  high  and  are  always 
provided  with  wide  and  ample  stairways.  The  classrooms 
lie  on  one  side  of  the  corridor  only,  requiring  the  buildings 
to  be  comparatively  narrow,  that  is,  wide  enough  for  a  cor- 
ridor and  for  a  classroom,  say  six  feet  for  the  corridor  and 


School  Buildings.  129 

twenty  to  twenty-four  feet  for  the  classroom.  The  law 
requires  that  there  must  be  at  least  six  square  feet  of  floor- 
surface  to  each  child.  Thus,  if  a  room  is  intended  for 
eighty  pupils,  the  room  would  necessarily  be  say  20x30 
feet,  or  if  the  number  of  pupils  is  sixty  it  might  be  18x24. 
The  former  is  about  the  size  of  the  rooms  in  most  city 
schools. 

The  height  of  the  ceiling  is  from  12  to  14  feet,  and  the_ 
windows  are  built  high  and  wide,  covering  most  of  the  wall- 
space  on  the  one  side,  so  as  to  give  plenty  of  light.  The 
law  requires  that  the  window-surface  shall  be  equal  to  at 
least  one  fifth  of  the  floor-surface.  The  last  ten  years 
have  brought  about  a  remarkable  improvement  in  the  light- 
ing of  schoolrooms,  since  Prof.  Cohn  of  Breslau  showed 
conclusively,  after  a  great  many  experiments,  and  after 
examining  a  large  number  of  children,  that  near-sightedness 
and  other  phases  of  weak  eyes  are  directly  traceable  to  badly 
lighted  schoolrooms.  While  all  new  buildings  are  properly 
lighted,  there  are  still  a  great  many  schoolrooms  in  which 
the  light  is  bad.  It  is  held  that  if  the  light  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  enable  a  child  to  read  ordinary  print  held  at  arm's 
length  it  does  not  suffice.  In  case  the  building  is  near 
other  buildings  the  ground  floor  is  not  to  be  used  for  class- 
rooms. 

The  seats  are  always  arranged  so  as  to  bring  the  light 
over  the  left  side,  never  from  the  right  or  directly  in  front. 
Hooks  for  the  clothing  are  placed  in  the  corridors,  and  also 
in  the  schoolroom  if  the  number  in  the  hall  does  not 
sufllice.  Back  of  the  teacher's  desk  is  a  blackboard,  usually 
about  4x6  feet,  and  above  this  are  hooks  upon  which  the 
maps  are  hung  as  they  are  needed.  The  blackboard-space 
of  American  schools  is  never  found.  As  blackboards  are 
used  only  by  the  teacher,  or  by  single  pupils  called  up  one 
at  a  time,  the  small  blackboard  answers  all  purposes.  A 
cheap  wooden  cupboard  serves  as  receptacle  for  copy-books, 


130  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

and  whatever  apparatus  the  teacher  may  desire  to  put  safely 
away. 

In  country  schools  the  .heating-apparatus  consists  of  a 
coal-stove.  In  the  cities  hot-water  pipe  systems  prevail 
with  ventilation  attachments.  In  some  schools  the  ther- 
mometer is  placed  before  a  slit  in  the  wall  which  enables  the 
janitor  to  note  the  temperature  of  the  room  from  outside 
without  disturbing  the  class.  A  plate  of  glass  over  the 
slit  prevents  the  outside  air  from  coming  in  and  disturbing 
the  mercury.  This  secures  a  proper  temperature,  as  the 
teacher,  who  is  busy  with  his  class  and  being  all  of  the 
time  in  the  room,  is  usually  insensible  to  its  temperature 
until  it  becomes  very  much  out  of  the  way. 

In  spite  of  all  apparatus  and  of  every  precaution,  our 
experience  in  German  classrooms  is  that  the  ventilation  is 
V  til  tion  generally  bad,  sometimes  dreadful.  In  most 
generaUy  cases  but  little  fresh  air  is  let  in  even  during 
***•  recesses  when  the  children  are  out ;    so  from 

the  beginning  till  the  close  of  school  no  fresh  air  comes  in 
except  what  may  come  in  through  the  imperfect,  insuffi- 
cient ventilating-shafts. 

A  convention  of  German  physicians  and  scientists  have 
made  the  following  suggestions  concerning  school  build- 
ings, especially  in  cities,  which  are  generally  carried  out  in 
the  new  buildings: 

I.  School-grounds. 

The  school-grounds  must  be  in  an  open  place  where  light 
and  air  are  good,  removed  from  the  noise  of  the  street, 
dry  and  well  drained,  and,  where  possible,  on  elevated 
ground,  and  supplied  with  good  water.  They  must  be 
large  enough  to  afford  three  square  metres  space  to  each 
child  besides  the  space  occupied  by  the  buildings.  The 
playground  should  be  covered  with  gravel ;  cement  walks 
should  lead  to  the  main  entrance. 


School  Buildings.  181 

II.   The  Building. 

1.  The  building  should  face  the  south  or  southeast;  the 
assembly-hall,  the  conference-room,  and  the  stairs  should 
face  to  the  north;  there  must  be  a  cellar  or  basement 
under  the  whole  building. 

2.  A  building  which  serves  for  both  sexes  should  have 
separate  entrances  and  stairways  for  each,  which  should 
be  about  six  feet  wide.  The  stairs  should  be  of  stone  and 
the  ascent  should  be  easy.  There  should  be  iron  grates 
before  the  threshold  to  serve  as  scrapers,  and  mats  for 
cleaning  the  feet  at  the  entrance. 

3.  The  corridor  should  be  wide,  light,  and  well  venti- 
lated, with  floors  of  stone  or  hard  wood. 

4.  Tlie  schoolroom  should  be  large  enough  to  admit  of 
four  rows  of  double  seats,*  seven  in  a  row,  thus  providing 
for  not  over  56  pupils,  and  with  necessary  space  for  teacher. 
This  would  require  a  room  about  24  X  30  feet.  The  seats 
must  meet  the  following  requirements:  1.  The  distance 
from  the  floor  must  be  such  that  when  the  child  sits  erect 
the  feet  shall  rest  squarely  on  the  floor.  2.  The  width  of 
the  seat  must  be  such  that  the  child  can  sit  Reqniremenu 
against  the  back,  the  legs  bending  at  right  •»  to  seats. 
angles  at  the  knees.  3.  The  back  of  the  seat  must  fit  the 
natural  curve  of  the  back  and  yet  be  of  a  character  to  fix  the 
habit  of  erect  sitting.  4.  The  height  of  the  desk  should 
be  such  that  the  forearm  rests  naturally  upon  it  with 
out  bending  the  body  and  without  elevating  the  shoulder. 
The  edge  of  the  desk  should  be  nearly  over  the  edge  of 
the  seat,  not  over  one  to  two  inches  removed.  The  desk 
should  have  a  slant  of  from  1^  to  2  inches.    Seats  should  be 

*  Double  seats  are  seldom  used,  the  custom  being  to  use  loug 
benches  with  only  one  aisle  through  the  middle  besides  the  side- 
aisles.  This  enables  more  children  to  be  brought  into  each  room, 
which,  though  still  necessary,  is  deplored  by  teachers  and  authorities. 


132  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

arranged  for  two  pupils  only,  thereby  adding  to  the  con- 
venience and  comfort  of  the  pupils  and  the  efficiency  of 
the  work. 

The  windows  should  be  as  high  and  wide  as  possible, 
and  always  on  the  left  of  the  pupils.  The  temperature  of 
the  room  should  be  kept  at  68-70°  Fahr.,  and  the  best 
means  of  ventilation  should  be  adopted  without  regard  to 
expense.  The  floors  should  be  of  hard  wood  and  oiled. 
There  should  be  separate  wardrobes  for  the  clothing,  well 
lighted  and  heated.*  The  water-closets,  especially  for  boys, 
should  be  outside  of  the  school  building,  and  should  also 
be  light  and  well  ventilated. 

III.   The  Gymnasium. 

Every  school  should  have  its  own  gymnasium  in  order  to 
give  both  sexes  the  proper  physical  training.  A  gymna- 
sium from  60  to  80  feet  long  by  25  to  40  feet  wide  is  suffi- 
cient for  a  school  of  500  children.  The  windows  should  be 
high  and  the  floor  of  hard  wood.  The  fixed  apparatus 
should  be  placed  in  one  end  of  the  room  so  as  to  leave 
plenty  of  space  for  free  class  exercises. 

IV.  Dicelling  for  teachers. 

It  is  recommended  that  separate  houses  be  built  for  such 
teachers  as  are  entitled  to  free  rent.f  They  should  be  on 
the  school-grounds,  so  that  the  principal  can  have  proper 
oversight  of  the  school. 

These  recommendations  have  had  a  great  influence  for 
the  improvement  of  school  buildings  in  many  parts  of  Ger- 
many, as  they  are  the  expression  not  alone  of  thoughtful 


*  This  is  a  suggestion  of  utmost  importance,  but  which  we  have 
never  yet  seen  carried  out  in  a  German  common  school. 

f  Principals.  Berlin  is  following  this  wise  recommendation  in- 
stead of  furnishing  rooms  in  the  school  building. 


School  Buildings.  133 

men,  but  of  specialists  who  have  made  a  careful  study  of 
the  subject.  Two  of  their  recommendations  have  not  as 
yet  borne  much  fruit  on  account  of  the  expense.  These 
are  their  recommendation  in  regard  to  the  seats,  especially 
that  seats  shall  not  be  for  more  than  two  pupils,  and  that 
in  regard  to  ventilation.  They  recognize  that  as  yet  no 
system  of  ventilation  has  been  found  that  is  a  complete 
success  unless  it  is  a  system  which  has  some  means  of 
propulsion,  which,  however,  is  very  expensive. 

Great  effort  is  made  to  secure  buildings  possessing  modem 
sanitary  improvements.  One  of  the  newest  buildings  in 
Berlin,  dedicated  in  1895,  has  bathing  facilities  for  the 
children  where  two  hundred  children  can  receive  a  shower- 
bath  each  day.  The  buildings  are  always  kept  very  clean. 
They  are  built  to  economize  expense,  and  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  assembly-hall,  which  is  not  used  for  morning 
exercises,  but  for  public  occasions,  the  walls  are  totally  bare 
and  unattractive.  The  law  requires  about  six  square  feet 
of  space  to  each  child,  and  the  school  authorities  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  law,  and  generally  no  more.  Thus  a 
classroom  with  its  long  benches  filled  with  children  always 
has  the  appearance  of  being  crowded. 

The  locating  of  the  school  building  back  from  the  street 
in  a  court  has  great  advantages.  This  is  possible  in  Ger- 
man cities,  which  are  not  laid  out  in  square  blocks,  but  is 
not  possible  in  most  American  cities.  More  spacious 
school-grounds  are  obtained,  the  buildings  can  be  isolated 
so  as  to  be  assured  of  good  light  and  air,  and  the  classes 
cannot  be  disturbed  by  the  noise  of  the  street. 


134  School  Systems  of  Germany, 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

SUPPORT  OF  THE   SCHOOLS. 

The  manner  of  supporting  the  schools  is  not  uniform 
throughout  Prussia.  In  some  cases  they  are  supported 
from  lands,  interest  on  funds,  rents,  etc. ,  which  for  many 
years  have  been  assigned  to  this  purpose.  Where  these 
means  are  insufficient,  the  balance  formerly  was  raised  by 
tuition  fees  which  the  teacher  was  expected  to  collect.  In 
most  cases,  however,  the  schools  are  supported  by  com- 
mune taxes,  the  state  rendering  assistance  when  needed. 
In  1889  the  minister  of  culture  recommended  that  tuition 
fees  be  abolished,  which  has  generally  been  done. 

The  following  table,  showing  the  cost  per  each  inhabi- 
tant for  several  periods  during  the  last  30  years  for  com- 
mon-school purposes,  indicates  an  upward  tendency  which 
speaks  well  for  Prussia : 

COST  OF  COMMON  SCHOOLS,   IN  MABK8,   PER  PEK80N. 

1861.    1871.     1878.    1886.    1891. 

In  cities 3.01   3     4.92   4.78   5.48 

In  the  country 1.44        1.80        3.32        3.73       4.49 

In  general 1.61        2.20        3.69        4.11        4.89 

This  shows  an  increase  in  the  30  years  of  more  than  one 
hundred  and  fifty  per  cent  in  cities,  and  nearly  the  same 
per  cent  in  the  country  and  for  the  whole  kingdom  in 
general.  The  cost  in  Berlin  for  1891  was  7  marks  and  2 
pfennigs  for  each  inhabitant  of  the  city. 
The  cost  per  pupil  will  be  shown  as  follows : 

COST,   IN  MARKS,  FOR  EACH  PUPIL. 

1861.  1871.    1878.    1886.  1891. 

In  cities 14.64  22.10      38.67      83.59  89.99 

In  the  country 8.80  10.72      18.40      19.79  24.73 

In  general 10.37  13.97      23.10      24.07  89.74 


Support  of  the  Schools.  136 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  expense  per  pupil  in  cities 
has  increased  in  the  last  30  years  nearly  two  hundred  per 
cent,  and  that  of  the  country  districts  and  the  kingdom  as 
a  whole  in  a  still  larger  proportion. 

A  part  of  the  teacher's  remuneration  consists  of  free 
house  and  fire-material;   42,910  teachers  have  these  per- 
quisites.    Then  there  are  school  lands  and  other  sources  of 
producing  funds  for  the  support  of  the   schools.      The 
collection  of  tuition  fees,  formerly  practised  everywhere  in 
Germany,  has  almost  entirely  disappeared  in  the  common 
schools,  though  still  required  in  the  higher  schools.     In 
1886  the  tuition  fees  amounted  to  16f  per  cent  y,QUjj_  „^ 
of  the  total  amount  raised  for  school  purposes,  of  tniuou 
while  in  1891  they  were  only  1^^  per  cent,  "*•• 
and  now  the  common  schools  are  free  in  nearly  all  places. 

We  have  seen  that  each  province  of  the  kingdom  of 
Prussia  is  divided  into  royal  governments,  over  which  there 
is  a  school  board.  This  board  fixes  the  salaries  to  be  paid 
by  each  school  under  its  jurisdiction. 

The  size  of  the  school,  cost  of  living,  and  ability  of  each 
school  district  are  taken  into  account,  and  the  amount 
fixed  according  to  these  conditions.  As  the  members  of 
this  board  are  men  of  character  and  understand  the  con- 
ditions thoroughly,  as  fair  a  result  is  obtained  as  the  limited 
means  will  allow.  Of  course  the  salaries  in  cities,  where 
rent  and  cost  of  living  are  higher,  are  necessarily  greater 
than  in  a  small  village,  where  living  is  inexpensive ;  besides, 
the  ability  to  sustain  better  salaries  is  relatively  greater  in 
cities  than  in  the  country. 

The  manner  of  raising  school  moneys  is  varied  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  Prussia.     There  are  five  local  sources  nve  locai 
through  which  the  school  gets  support:  1.  So-  |^^^  °' 
called  school  societies,  established  for  the  pur-  moneys, 
pose  of  assisting  poor  communities  and  generally  embracing 
several  schools  in  their  territory. 


136  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

2.  Church  funds,  inherited  lands,  and  other  property 
set  aside  for  school  purposes. 

3.  Directly  from  the  Church  treasury. 

4.  Tuition  charged  each  pupil. 

5.  Taxes  collected  on  the  property  in  the  district,  to- 
gether with  allowances  from  the  so-called  patrons  and  large 
landowners.     And  besides  these  there  is  assistance 

6.  From  the  state  treasury. 

The  relative  part  each  of  the  above  sources  bears  in  the 
support  of  the  schools  will  be  illustrated  by  the  following 
table  of  moneys  applied  to  teachers'  salaries  for  1892-93  for 
the  whole  kingdom : 

TABLE  OP  SOURCES  OF  INCOME  (iN  MARKS). 

In  Cities.    In  the  Country.       Total. 

School  societies 3,164,359      2,635,039  4,799,398 

Income  from  inherited  property..       564,005      5,980,390  6,544,395 

Church  funds 632,375      1,843,925  2,476,300 

Local  taxes 20.131,276      7,646,084  27,777,360 

Tuition '....     1,033,171         345,812  1,378,983 

State 10,818,467    29,223,792  40,042,259 

An  analysis  of  this  table  shows  that  the  cities  pay  about 
two  thirds  of  their  own  school  expenses  themselves,  receiv- 
ing about  one  third  from  the  state,  while  the  country  dis- 
tricts pay  about  one  sixth  of  their  school  expenses  by  tax, 
receive  a  like  amount  from  various  local  funds,  and  the 
balance,  or  about  two  thirds  of  the  whole  expense,  from  the 
state. 

The  state  pays  for  each  school  employing  one  teacher 
400  marks;  for  schools  employing  more  than  one  teacher 
400  marks  for  the  head-teacher,  200  marks  for  each  reg- 
ular male  teacher,  150  marks  for  each  regular  female 
teacher,  and  100  marks  for  each  assistant*  teacher  of 
either  sex. 

*  By  assistant  teacher  (Htllfslehrer)  is  meant  those  just  out  of  the 
seminary  who  are  not  yet  appointed  to  fixed  positions. 


Support  of  the  Schools.  187 

The  total  amount  paid  by  Prussia  out  of  state  funds  for 
common-school  purposes  in  1894  increased  to  about  53,- 
000,000  marks. 

The  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  recommends,  and  the 
law  requires,  that  tuition  fees  shall  be  entirely  abolished  as 
soon  as  possible.     The  settlement  of  this  point  The  state 
rests  with  each  community  to  decide  for  itself,   a»»i"t«  ^ 
and  many  communities  have  already  made  their  achooi 
schools  entirely   free,  preferring  to  raise  the  inirdea. 
necessary  funds  by  tax  rather  than  require  payment  of 
tuition. 

The  condition  of  things  in  regard  to  choice  and  support 
of  teachers  desired  by  the  foremost  schoolmen  may  be 
summed  up  as  follows : 

1.  The  choice  of  teachers  to  be  relegated  to  each  com- 
munity for  itself,  the  state  reserving  the  right  to  ratify 
such  choice. 

2.  Each  community  to  pay  the  regular  salaries  of  its 
teachers,*  receiving  assistance  from  the  state  when  nec- 
essary. 

3.  The  state  to  pay  the  sums  required  for  the  increase  of 
salaries  from  time  to  time  after  periods  of  service,  and  to 
provide  for  pensions,  and  for  widows  and  orphans. 

Such  a  plan  would  keep  the  teachers  independent,  give 
them  freedom  of  action,  stimulate  the  interest  of  the  com- 
munity in  its  schools,  and  correspondingly  limit  the  state 
in  its  prerogatives,  thereby  checking  its  tendency  to  abso- 
lutism in  the  management  of  schools. 

*  The  amount  received  by  the  teacher  when  he  first  begins  teach- 
ing (Grondgehalt). 


138  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

CHAPTER  XX. 

THE  TRAINING  OF  TEACHEES — PREPARATOEY  SCHOOLS. 

The  teachers  of  the  common  schools  usually  come  from 
the  ranks  of  the  common  people.  Pupils  that  show  apti- 
tude in  study  and  seem  to  possess  more  than  ordinary 
talent  are  selected  as  candidates  for  the  teacher's  profes- 
sion. Such  pupils  often  act  as  monitors  in  the  school, 
Selection  of  assisting  the  teacher  in  his  work,  especially 
candidates  where  there  are  several  classes  under  one 
for  teachers,  teacher,  as  in  a  country  school.  The  wishes  of 
the  parents,  as  well  as  the  inclination  of  the  boy,  and  the 
opinion  of  the  teacher,  pastor,  and  district  school-inspector, 
are  all  taken  into  account.  This  means  a  great  deal  to  a 
boy,  as  it  raises  him  above  the  position  in  life  which  he 
otherwise  would  probably  have  to  fill,  assures  him  assist- 
ance from  the  state  during  the  six  years  of  preparation 
before  him,  and  secures  him,  if  he  proves  himself  diligent 
and  capable,  a  position  of  respect  and  influence  among  his 
fellow-men.  Because  of  the  importance  of  the  teacher's 
position,  because  the  state  contributes  largely  to  the  means 
necessary  for  their  support  and  education,  great  care  is 
taken  to  select  young  men  of  excellent  health,  good  habits, 
and  such  as  show  strong  probabilities  of  making  successful 
teachers. 

So  after  completing  his  common-school  course  at  the  age 
of  fourteen  the  boy  is  sent  to  the  preparatory  school, 
p^jj.^  ^j  where  he  enters  upon  a  three-years'  course, 
preparatory  The  purpose  of  these  preparatory  schools  is  to 
schools.  connect  the  common-school    course   with  the 

teachers'  seminary.     In  some  cases  they  are  connected 


The  Training  of  Teachers — Preparatory  Schools,    139 

directly  with  the  seminary,  making  a  six  years'  continued 
course  in  one  school;  but  in  most  cases  they  are  separate. 
Generally  the  preparatory  schools  are  private  institutions, 
though  under  state  control  and  inspection,  and  receiving 
assistance  from   the  state.      The  principle  is  recognized 
that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  state  to  educate  her  teachers, 
and   that  duty  extends  also  to    the    preparatory  years, 
whether  the  work  be  done  in  private  or  in  state  institu- 
tions.    The  principal  of  the  teachers'  seminary  under  sute 
of  a  district  haa  oversight  of  all  preparatory  """^^"^ 
schools  in  his  district,  as  they  present  the  can-  private  or 
didates  for  admission  to  his  school.     No  pre-  not. 
paratory  school  can  be  established  without  the  consent  of 
the  government,   so  that    the  number  of   candidates  is 
measured  by  the  demand  for  teachers  as  shown  by  ex- 
perience. 

There  were  35  of  these  schools  in  Prussia  in  1892,  with 
2305  pupils.  In  many  cases  boys  can  live  at  home  and 
attend  the  school,  thus  keeping  them  under  parental  in- 
fluence during  these  important  years  (14-17).  The  tuition 
charged  each  pupil  is  36  marks  a  year,  and  the  state  adds 
about  90  marks  for  each  pupil  when  it  is  shown  Assistance 
that  his  parents  are  unable  to  pay  for  him.  The  o'  the  state 
state  also  further  assists  in  the  support  of  the  pupils  when 
they  are  needy.  In  1892  the  state  paid  756.601  marks  for 
the  assistance  of  the  preparatory  schools,  about  ^  of  which 
was  directly  for  the  support  of  pupils. 

All  pupils  who  enter  a  preparatory  school  for  the  teach- 
ers' seminary  must  meet  the  following  conditions : 

1.  The  candidate  must  bring  a  declaration  from  the 
father  as  to  his  ability  to  support  his  son  during  the 
course.  If  the  father  is  unable  to  support  him,  it  by  no 
means  excludes  him,  as  we  have  seen  above.  But  the 
exact  situation  must  be  stated.  This  statement  must  be 
certified  to  by  the  mayor  of  his  place. 


140  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

2.  He  must  stand  an  oral  and  written  examination 
covering  all  of  the  subjects  of  the  common-school  course. 

3.  The  number  of  pupils  in  a  school  is  limited  to  fifty, 
who  are  divided  into  two  classes,  the  work  of  the  lower 
class  requiring  one  year,  that  of  the  higher  class  two  years. 
The  higher  class  is  divided  into  two  divisions,  though  in 
most  subjects  the  two  divisions  are  instructed  together. 

4.  The  course  must  be  suflBcient  to  fully  prepare  for  ad- 
mission to  a  teachers'  seminary. 

5.  The  pupils  live  in  families,  but  under  control  and 
oversight  of  the  school,  and  their  conduct  and  manner  of 
life  are  carefully  looked  after. 

The  purpose  of  these  schools  is  to  lay  a  foundation  of 
general  knowledge  upon  which  the  special  training  for 
teachers  can  be  built.     They  are  especially  admonished  to 

see  that  their  pupils  acquire  good  habits,  learn 
patriotism, '  to  love  the  fatherland,  and  become  established 
and  Christian  in  Christian  life  and  practice.  The  instruction 
fideuty.  -g  largely  objective,  following  the  natural  meth- 
od of  development.  Self-activity  and  independence  in 
thinking,  accurate  observation,  good  articulation,  and 
fluency  in  speech  are  ends  to  which  especial  attention 
must  be  given. 

The  course  embraces  instruction  in  the  subjects  enu- 
merated on  the  next  page. 

At  about  the  age  of  seventeen  these  young  men  leave  the 
preparatory  school  and  enter  the  teachers'  seminary  for  the 
direct  and  definite  training  which  is  to  fit  them  for  their 
life-work.  These  preparatory  schools  are  necessary,  first, 
because  there  are  no  other  schools  which  furnish  the  proper 

instruction  between  the  common  school  and  the 
preparatory  seminary  course  during  the  years  14-17;  and 
schools  of       secondly,  because  other  schools  which  furnish  a 

somewhat  correspondingly  advanced  instruction 
are  too  expensive  for  the  class  of  young  men  who  fit  them- 
selves for  the  vocation  of  common-school  teacher. 


The  Training  of  Teachers— Preparatory  Schools.    141 


COUBSB  OF  STUDY. 


Course  of 

Study 


Religion. 
German. 


Mathematics. 

History. 
Geography. 


Preparatory    "* 
Schools 

for 
Teachers. 


Science. 


Drawing. 


Music. 


Gymnastics. 
.French. 


'  Reading 

Writing. 

Spelling. 

Grammar. 

( Arithmetic 

( Geometry, 


'Botany. 

Zoology. 

Physiology. 

Physics. 

Chemistry. 
.Mineralogy. 

'  Singing. 
Piano. 
Organ. 
Violin. 


142  School  Systems  of  Germany, 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

teachers'  seminaries. 

There  are  in  Prussia  122  teachers'  seminaries,  111  for 
men  exclnsively,  9  for  women,  1  with  course  for  women 
separate  from  the  course  for  men,  and  1  for  governesses. 
Each  of  the  36  royal  governments  (including  the  city  of 
Berlin)  must  have  at  least  one  seminary,  and  as  many  more 
as  may  be  needed.  The  faculty  of  a  teachers'  seminary 
Faculty  of  a  consist  of  a  director,  a  head-teacher  or  sort  of 
seminary.  vice-principal,  four  regular  teachers,  one  of 
whom  is  the  practice  teacher,  and  one  assistant  (Hiilfs- 
lehrer) .  All  teaching  not  done  by  the  above  is  done  by  the 
students  in  the  practice  school. 

The  number  of  students  admitted  depends  upon  the 
requirements  of  the  district,  but  the  number  for  each  class 
must  not  exceed  30,  or,  in  case  of  a  scarcity  of  teachers,  36. 
As  there  are  three  classes  ^the  total  number  of  students  in 
a  school  therefore  is  90-100.  Instead  of  allowing  the 
number  to  go  beyond  this,  the  government  prefers  to 
build  new  seminaries  whenever  there  is  a  demand  for 
them.  As  teachers'  positions  are  permanent,  and  as  sta- 
tistics and  experience  show  the  average  number  of  vacancies 
caused  by  death,  retirement  upon  pension,  illness,  and  other 
causes,  pretty  accurate  estimates  can  be  made  as  to  the 
number  of  teachers  that  will  be  needed.  So  only  as  many 
as  will  probably  be  needed,  allowance  being  made  for  the 
falling  off  during  the  course,  are  admitted  to  the  seminary. 
Thus  the  state  is  at  the  expense  of  preparing  only  as  many 
teachers  as  may  be  needed,  and  the  student  who  has  satis- 


Teachers'  Seminaries,  143 

factorily  completed  the  course  is  reasonably  sure  of  a  posi- 
tion. 

Candidates  tor  admission  must  have  completed  their  sev- 
enteenth year  and  not  be  more  than  twenty-four  years  of 
age,  must  be  in  good  liealtli,  of  good  moral  character,  and 
must  also  pass  an  oral  and  written  examination  conditions  of 
for  entrance.  A  careful  examination  is  made  admiMion. 
by  a  physician,  and  those  who  are  not  likely  to  endure  the 
three  years  of  study  and  be  able  to  devote  many  years  to 
the  service  of  the  state  in  teaching  are  rejected.  The 
government  must  necessarily  be  careful  in  this  particular 
for  two  reasons : 

1.  It  cannot  afford  to  educate  a  man  who  will  not  be 
able  to  render  proper  return  in  service,  as  a  large  part  of 
the  expense  falls  upon  the  state,  and 

2.  As  the  state  pays  a  pension  to  teachers  who  are 
obliged  to  retire  after  10  years'  service,  care  must  be 
taken  that  only  healthy  candidates  are  admitted  to  the 
service. 

The  candidates  are  examined  by  the  faculty  of  the  school 
under  the  direction  of  a  commission  appointed  by  the  pro- 
vincial school  board.  The  subjects  examined  in  are  reli- 
gion, German,  arithmetic,  music,  science,  and  subjects  of 
history.  A  short  essay  on  some  familiar  topic  examinttion. 
is  required.  In  science  a  knowledge  of  geology,  zoology, 
botany,  physics,  and  elementary  chemistry  is  expected, 
and  some  familiarity  with  experiments.  Also  ability  to 
play  easy  pieces  of  music  on  the  piano,  organ,  and  violin. 
This  last  requirement  is  not  held  to  very  strictly  in  all 
cases,  though  it  is  desired.  It  is  not  necessary  that  a 
pupil  should  have  received  his  preparation  in  the  prepara- 
tory schools  already  described.  If  he  has  had  that  train- 
ing, he  enters  the  seminary  more  easily,  as  the  preparatory 
school  has  shaped  its  course  to  that  end,  having  been  under 
the  oversight  of  the  director  of  the  seminary ;  but  no  mat- 


144  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

ter  where  he  has  been  trained,  if  there  is  an  opening,  and 
if  he  can  meet  the  requirements,  he  is  admitted. 

The  teachers'  seminaries  are  all  confessional  in  character, 
Confessional  teachers  for  evangelical  schools  being  trained  in 
In  character,  evangelical  seminaries,  and  teachers  for  Catholic 
schools  in  Catholic  seminaries.  All  alike,  however,  are  sup- 
ported by  the  state,  and  are  under  the  same  general  regula- 
tions as  to  teachers,  students,  course  of  study,  and  so  forth. 
The  directors  (principals)  are  appointed  directly  by  the 
king;*  they  are  mostly  university  men  and  theologians. 
A  strong  religious  sentiment  pervades  the  life  of  the  sem- 
inary, and  no  young  man  can  come  under  its  influence  for 
ReUeions  in-  ^^^®®  years  without  being  deeply  impressed ; 
fiuences  of  therefore  the  young  teachers  go  forth  to  their 
the  seminary,  important  duty  prepared  to  exert  an  influence 
for  piety  and  good  morals  in  the  communities  where  their 
lot  is  cast. 

The  other  teachers  of  the  seminary  are  a^Dpointed  by  the 
minister  of  education,  and  they  must  have  proved  their 
eminent  pedagogical  fitness  to  be  teachers  of  teachers  be- 
fore they  can  be  chosen.  The  salaries  of  the  instructors 
are  as  follows : 

Directors 4000-5400  Marks. 

Head-teachers 3000-4000     " 

Ordinary  "       1800-3200      " 

Assistant"       1200-1800      " 

Besides  their  salary  they  have  dwelling-rooms,  fuel,  and 
light  free  of  cost. 

In  about  one  third  of  the  Prussian  seminaries  the  stu- 
dents are  roomed  and  boarded  in  the  school  building;  in 
the  others  they  board  in  families,  under  control  of  the 
faculty.  Tuition  is  free,  and  each  student  is  allowed  from 
90-150  marks  a  year  towards  his  expenses. 

*  In  his  relations  to  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia  Wilhelm  II.  is  kin^, 
l^ence  the  use  of  that  title  here, 


Teachers'  Seminaries.  145 

In  connection  with  the  seminary  there  is  always  a  prac- 
tice-school. Prof.  Stoy  used  to  say :  "A  pedagogical  sem- 
inary without  a  practice-school  is  a  nonentity,  ^^.  ,  v^j. 
a  chimera."  The  students  of  the  third  class*  a  practice- 
are  sunply  learners,  having  lessons  to  prepare  •«^°oi- 
and  recite  the  same  as  in  other  schools.  Those  of  the  second 
class  begin  to  take  part  in  the  control  of  children  at  work 
and  at  play,  and  finally  they  are  required  to  follow  a  sys- 
tematic plan  of  visiting  classes  and  observation  of  methods 
of  instruction.  They  may  also  be  given  a  small  amount  of 
teaching  just  before  the  close  of  the  year  to  prepare  them 
for  the  work  of  their  last  year.  Those  of  the  first  class  must 
teach  a  part  of  the  year.  They  must  teach  classes  of  differ- 
ent ages  in  different  subjects,  under  the  inspection  and 
criticism  of  the  seminary  faculty,  especially  the  practice- 
teacher.  Their  colleagues  are  present  aS  oh-  weekly 
servers.  Once  a  week  a  conference  is  held  at  conference, 
which  the  whole  class  and  members  of  the  faculty  are 
present.  The  work  is  discussed,  criticisms  offered  and  sug- 
gestions made.  Sometimes  a  class  of  children  is  brought 
in  and  a  lesson  given  by  one  of  the  students,  which  is 
afterward  discussed.  When  a  student  turns  over  a  class  to 
a  successor,  he  must  examine  it  in  the  presence  of  the 
faculty  and  his  colleagues  in  order  to  show  the  work  accom- 
plished and  the  condition  of  the  class,  so  that  his  successor 
will  know  where  to  begin.  Each  student  is  required  to 
keep  all  records  and  perform  every  duty  that  will  devolve 
upon  him  when  he  is  actually  in  charge  of  a  school. 

The  seminary-faculty  ever  have  in  mind  in  their  training 
the  necessary  qualifications  of  a  successful  teacher,  and 
seek  to  develop  them  in  theory  and  practice  in  their  pupils. 


*  The  beginners  are  the  third  class,  the  second  year  the  second 
class,  and  the  third  or  graduating  year  the  first  class.  We  shall 
use  the  Qerman  nomenclature  in  alluding  to  these  classes  hereaft«r. 


146  School  Systems  of  Germany, 

These  qualifications  may  be  stated  as  follows : 
1.  Knowledge,  not  so  much  in  breadth  as  fundamental, 
sure,  and  connected. 

Quaiificatioiui     ^-  ^kill  in  teaching,  which  usually  develops 
of  a  success-  by  practice. 

fui  teacher.        ^    Natural  inclination  for  the  work  and  duties 
of  teacher. 

4.  Power  of  instructing,  which  carries  with  it  the  gift 
of  observing,  acquaintance  with  the  human  heart  and  men- 
tal activities,  and  ability  to  understand  the  child-nature. 
The  teacher  must  also  have  an  open  nature,  a  quiet  dis- 
position, and  stability  of  character.  These  gifts  or  powers 
of  instructing  are  established  by  natural  bent  and  culti- 
vated by  experience  and  reflection.  Under  these  elevating 
influences  and  with  these  high  motives  ever  held  before 
him,  the  young  student-teacher  spends  his  three  years  in 
the  seminary  preparatory  to  a  life-work  devoted  unselfishly 
to  the  service  of  his  state  and  his  fellow-beings. 


Course  of  Study  in  Teachers'  Seminaries,         147 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN  TEACHERS*   SEMINARIES. 

Before  entering  upon  a  study  of  the  course  itself,  it 
may  be  well  first  to  see  what  the  general  purpose  of  each 
year  is.     The  object  in  the  lowest  class  (third)  is  to  teach 
the  students  to  systematize  and  extend  their  knowledge, 
to  be  able  to  reproduce  accurately.     They  have  nothing  to 
do  with  the  practice-school,  but  are  taught  by  the  faculty, 
whose  lessons  are  intended  to  be  good  models  ^^^viKt  t 
of  teaching.     The  work  is  simply  academic.     In  work  in 
the  middle  class  (second)  the  knowledge  is  ex-    "*^^  *^^*"* 
tended,  and  they  are  introduced  gradually  to  the  work  of 
teaching  by  undertaking  some  control  of  the  children  and 
by  visiting  class-work  sis  observers. 

In  the  upper  class  (first)  the  seminary  studies  are  com- 
pleted and  work  marked  out  for  their  further  study  after 
they  leave  the  seminary  and  begin  teaching.  They  also 
have  not  less  than  six  nor  more  than  ten  hours  of  teaching 
throughout  the  year  in  the  practice-school.  The  work 
done  by  them  in  teaching  must  be  carefully  entered  from 
time  to  time  in  a  book  for  that  purpose. 

The  two  lower  classes  have  24  hours  a  week  of  lessons,  the 
upper  class  14  hours,  10  hours  being  allowed  for  their  work 
in  teaching.  One  foreign  language  is  required,  usually 
French.  English  and  Latin  are  also  taught  as  optional 
studies  for  those  who  are  able  to  take  them.  Each  lesson 
by  a  member  of  the  seminary  faculty  is  supposed  to  be  a 
model  of  didactic  procedure,  to  serve  as  an  example  for  the 
future  practice  of  the  student  when  he  becomes  a  teacher. 
Each  seminary  is  provided  with  a  good  library,  various  cab- 


148  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

inets,  laboratories,  and  necessary  apparatus  for  instruction. 
All  lessons  are  omitted  one  school-day  each  month  in  order 
to  give  the  students  opportunity  for  continuous  study  with- 
out any  inteiTuption.  These  days  cannot  be  used  for  any 
other  pupose,  but  must  be  employed  i'aitlifully  in  study. 

With  tliis  general  introduction,  we  are  ready  to  proceed 
with  the  discussion  of  the  individual  subjects  of  the  course 

of  study. 

PEDAGOGICS. 

(3d  year— 2  HOURS.*) 

The  most  important  events  in  the  history  of  education ; 
discussion  of  celebrated  teachers ;  the  chief  periods  of  prog- 
ress in  the  history  of  the  common  schools;  introduction  to 
the  literature  of  pedagogics,  especially  since  the  Eeforma- 
tion;  these  to  be  treated  in  a  systematic  manner,  so  that 
the  pupils  will  be  able  to  reproduce  in  the  form  of  con- 
nected statements. 

(3d  Year— 3  Hours.) 

General  principles  of  education  and  instruction,  educa- 
tion by  means  of  or  through  instruction,  with  application 
of  the  most  important  principles  of  logic  and  psychology. 

(IsT  Year — 3  Hours.) 
Methods;  the  office  of  school-teacher,  school  authority; 
the  peculiar  school  laws  and  regulations  of  the  district  in 
which  the  seminary  is  situated,  as  well  as  matters  of  dis- 
cipline and  other  questions  that  are  likely  to  be  of  use  to 
the  young  teacher.  Two  hours  are  devoted  to  the  above, 
while  the  third  is  taken  by  the  practice-teacher  for  the  dis- 
cussion of  didactic  questions  and  the  elucidation  of  peda- 
gogical truths  from  their  work  in  the  seminary. 

RELIGION  f 
(3d  Year — 4  Hours.) 
Connected  Old  Testament  history  with  special  reference 
to  the  moral  and  religious  context ;  the  Psalms  and  selec- 

*  2  liours  a  week. 

f  It  may  be  thought  that  as  religion  has  no  part  in  the  American 
school  course,  it  will  be  of  no  practical  value  to  give  the  course  in 


Course  of  Study  in  Teachers'  Seminaries.         149 

tions  from  other  poetic  books ;  the  historical  development  of 
hymus,  particularly  those  specitied  in  the  course  to  be 
taught  in  the  schools. 

(3d  Year— 4  Hours.) 
Connected  New  Testament  history  and  the  Epistles;  ex- 
planations of  church  days  and  ordinances;  religious  doc- 
trines according  to  the  particular  confession  (protestant  or 
Catholic)  based  upon  the  catechism.  In  the  last  half  of 
the  second  semester,  at  least  an  hour  a  week  of  this  time 
is  given  to  observation  of  class  work  in  religion  in  the  prac- 
tice-school. 

(iBT  Year— 2  Hours.) 

Acts  of  the  Apostles,  Pauline  letters,  selections  from  the 
books  of  Job  and  IsaiaU;  the  most  important  events  of 
church  history;  methods  of  religious  instruction ;  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  religious  text-books  in  use  in  the  district, 
such  as  the  catechism,  hymn-book,  etc.,  in  order  to  be  able 
to  explain  their  contents  to  the  children. 

GERMAN. 
(8d  Year— 5  Hours.) 

a.  Grammar. — The  simple,  compound,  and  complex  sen- 
tence; parts  of  speech,  declension,  conjugation,  comparison, 
etc;  the  rules  of  orthography  and  punctuation. 

b.  Rhetoric. — Practice  in  oral  and  written  expression; 
discussion  of  different  kinds  of  poetry,  legends,  proverbs, 
fables,  parables,  allegory,  style,  etc. 

(2d  Year— 5  Hours.) 

a.  Grammar. — The  same  as  the  3d  year,  only  extended, 
completing  the  subject. 

h.  Rhetoric. — Completion  also  of  this  subject. 

In  addition  the  method  of  teaching  reding  :ind  lan- 
guage, illustrated  by  model  lessons,  with  pupils. 

religion  here.  But  one  cannot  obtain  a  correct  picture  of  the  German 
schools  if  religion  is  omitted  in  this  discussion,  as  it  has  such  an  im- 
portant place  in  the  course.  Its  discussion  may  be  of  value  to  as 
also. 


160  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

(1st  Year — 2  Hodrs.) 

Keview  of  the  work  of  the  two  preceding  classes ;  method 
of  teaching  the  mother-tongue  practically  developed  by  les- 
sons with  children,  the  following  ends  to  be  had  in  view: 
a.  Great  weight  to  be  laid  upon  the  acquisition  of  correct 
and  fluent  speech,  which  is  not  to  be  reached  simply  by 
special  exercises  for  that  purpose,  but  must  be  had  in  mind 
in  every  lesson  of  every  subject  taught,  so  that  the  child 
acquires  the  habit  of  always  using  correct  language. 

b.  In  written  exercises  correct  spelling,  accurateness  in 
expression,  proper  arrangement  of  material  to  be  always 
insisted  upon.  The  end  to  be  sought  in  the  student  is  the 
ability  to  use  the  knowledge  which  he  possesses  readily 
and  fluently  in  all  subjects  which  he  has  to  teach. 

c.  Readings  from  the  masterpieces  of  prose  and  poetry 
and  German  classics,  with  explanations  of  the  meanings; 
finally  the  reading-book  of  the  province  is  carefully  gone 
through,  its  literature  studied,  and  the  young  teacher  pre- 
pared to  properly  instruct  in  reading. 

HISTORY. 
(3d  Year — 2  Hours.) 
History  of  Greece,  heroic  age,  Persian  wars,  till  Alex- 
ander the  Great ;  history  of  Eome  during  the  empire  and 
the  republic,  fall  of  the  republic,  the  Caesars  until  the  end 
of  the  first  century. 

(2d  Yeah— 2  Hours.) 

The  land  and  folk  of  the  early  Germans,  wars  with 
Rome,  migration  of  the  races,  the  Carlovingians,  exten- 
sion of  Christianity,  Charlemagne,  history  of  German  royal 
houses,  crusades,  modern  history  coming  down  to  the 
Reformation. 

(IsT  Year— 2  Hours.) 

Brandenburg,  Prussian  history  till  the  present  time, 
with  contemporary  history  of  other  nations. 

The  method  of  instruction  from  the  third  to  the  first 
class  is  intended  to  be  a  model  of  pedagogical  procedure. 
It  seeks  to  develop  the  power  of  connected  description  on 
the  part  of  the  students,  which  they  are  required  to  apply 
in  the  practice-school  in  their  last  year. 


Course  of  Study  in  Teachers'  Seminaries.         151 

ARITHMETIC. 
(8d  Yeah— 3  Hours.) 
The  fundamental  rules  of  arithmetic  and  algebra,*  deci- 
mals, fractions,  rule  of  three,  various  branches  of  percent- 
age, square  and  cube  root. 

(2d  Year— 3  Hours.) 
Proportion,  elementary  algebra  to  quadratic  equations, 
review  of  the  work  actually  taught  in  the  common  school 
with  view  to  illustrate  the  methods  of  instruction,  use  of 
the  arithmetical  apparatus  employed  in  the  schools. 
(IsT  Year- 2  Hours.) 
Quadratic  equations  and,  if  possible,  logarithms.     The 
purjDose  during  this  last  year  is  to  secure  independence  in 
the  solution  of  problems,  and  to  give  a  clear  insight  into 
the  methods  of  instruction. 

GEOMETRY. 
(3d  Year— 2  Hours.) 
Plain  geometry,  with  exercises  in  construction. 

(2d  Year— 2  Hours.) 
Plain  geometry,  completed,  and  solid  geometry. 

(IsT  Year.) 
Review  of  the  first  two  years'  work  in  connection  with 
the  work  in  arithmetic.  Great  attention  is  paid  through- 
out the  whole  three  years  to  geometrical  constructions  and 
to  the  drawing  of  original  figures.  The  instruction  is  based 
upon  observation,  use  being  made  of  geometrical  forms  and 
of  drawings. 

SCIENCE. 
(3d  Year— 4  Hours) 
a.  Botany.  —  Study  of  selected,  native  plants,  which 
belong  to  families  most  generally  found  in  the  locality, 
knowledge  of  the  Linne  system  and  of  the  most  important 
plants  of  botanical  morphology.  Two  hours  a  week  are 
given  to  zoology  in  the  winter. 

*  Simple  algebraic  operations  are  carried  on  with  the  same  opera- 
tions in  arithmetic.  The  arithmetical  operations  are  made  clearer 
thereby,  and  but  little  more  time  is  required. 


152  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

b  Physics. — Magnetic,  electrical,  and  mechanical  mani- 
feetations. 

c.  Chemistry. — The  simple  radicals  and  their  combina- 
tions.    Especial  attention  given  to  the  mineral  bases. 

(3d  Year — 4  Hours.) 

a.  Botany. — Continued  and  completed.  In  the  winter 
zoology  again,  also  completed.     Physiology  is  also  given. 

b.  Physics. — Light,  heat,  and  sound. 

c.  Chemistry. —  In  addition  to  the  completion  of  the 
work  begun  the  previous  year,  organic  chemistry.  The 
method  of  instruction  is  always  given  prominence,  ample 
illustrations  and  experiments  being  made  use  of. 

(1st  Year— 2  Hours.) 

Review  of  the  work  of  the  previous  years,  with  special 
reference  to  methods  of  instruction.     Geology  is  added. 

Throughout  all  the  science  work  experiments,  especially 
in  physics  and  chemistry,  and  in  other  subjects,  objects  or 
pictures  of  objects  freely  used  to  illustrate.  Pure  mem- 
orizing is  forbidden.  Students  must  be  able  to  manipulate 
the  apparatus  and  perform  experiments  themselves.  In 
all  cases  illustration  must  be  freely  made  use  of  wherever 
possible. 

GEOGRAPHY. 
(3d  Year— 2  Hours.) 

The  most  important  things  in  connection  with  local  and 
general  geography,  general  survey  of  the  earth's  surface, 
the  grand  divisions  of  the  earth  with  the  exception  of 
Europe,  use  of  maps. 

(3d  Year— 2  Hours.) 
Europe,  Germany,  mathematical  geography,  introduction 
to  the  method  of  teaching  geography  by  model  lessons  as 
a  preparation  for  the  work  of  the  final  year. 

(1st  Year — 1  Hour.) 
Method  of  teaching  carefully  carried  out ;  use  of  maps, 
atlases,  globes,  tellurium,  and  other  apparatus.  Each  stu- 
dent is  to  possess  a  large  atlas,  which  he  must  freely  use 
during  his  course  and  keep  for  personal  use  in  the  school- 
room. 


Course  of  Study  in  Teachers'  Seminaries.         153 

DRAWING. 
(3d  Yeak— 2  Hotms.) 
Free-hand  drawing;  drawing  and  dividing  of  lines  and 
angles;  drawing  of  geometrical  plain  figures;  compound 
and  symmetrical  figures;  drawing  of  angular  and  curved 
figures;  ornamentation  from  objects  and  pictures;  use  of 
ruler,  compass,  and  otlier  instruments;  drawing  on  the 
blackboard. 

(2d  Year — 2  Houks.) 

Elements  of  perspective ;  free-hand  drawing  from  models 
and  objects ;  charcoal  and  India-ink  work  according  to  the 
special  gifts  of  the  student ;  blackboard  drawing. 

(IsT  Ykar — 1  Hour.) 

Practice  on  the  blackboard  and  drawing  from  objects, 
especially  such  as  will  be  of  use  in  illustrating  school -work; 
methods  of  drawing  discussed  and  the  class  taught  not 
only  the  practical  but  also  the  theoretical  value  of  drawing 
in  education. 

Each  member  of  the  class  is  able  at  the  end  of  his  sem- 
inary course  to  draw  rapidly  on  paper  or  on  the  blackboard 
any  object  or  picture  necessary  in  his  future  work  as 
teacher,  and  also  to  give  theoretical  and  practical  instruc- 
tion in  drawing  to  his  pupils. 

WRITING. 
(8d  Year — 2  Hoors,  and  2d  Year — 1  Hour.) 
The  purpose  of  this  work  is  as  follows : 

1.  Each  student  must  acquire  a  good  handwriting,  and 
in  all  written  work  show  a  clean,  plain,  rapid  style. 

2.  He  must  be  able  to  write  copies  in  writing-books  and 
also  on  the  blackboard  neatly  and  accurately. 

3.  He  must  be  able  to  teach  the  subject  systematically 
and  methodically. 

GYMNASTICS. 

The  third-  and  second-year  students  have  two  hours  a 

week,  and  the  first  year  one  hour  in  which  they  have  all 

of  the  gymnastic  exercises  of  the  common  school,  besides 

such  other  exercises  as  they  may  desire  to  take  for  their 


1 54  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

own  health  and  amusement.  Lessons  on  the  human  body 
are  given,  and  the  purpose  of  the  various  gymnastic  exer- 
cises for  its  development  explained.  There  are  also  lec- 
tures on  measures  to  be  taken  in  cases  of  accidents,  on 
the  historical  development  and  purpose  of  gymnastics, 
manner  of  establishing  a  gymnasium  in  country  schools, 
and  how  to  make  apparatus,  and  other  questions  of  like 
nature.  Every  member  of  the  graduating  class  must  con- 
duct a  class  in  gymnastics  a  number  of  times  until  proper 
skill  is  shown.  As  gymnastics  are  required  in  all  schools 
the  same  as  other  subjects,  every  teacher  must  be  prepared 
to  teach  them. 

MUSIC. 

Each  student  is  given  a  technical  training  on  the  piano, 
organ  and  violin,  and  in  harmony  and  singing.  This  ex- 
tends throughout  the  full  three  years,  and  as  we  have 
seen,  presupposes  some  previous  preparation.  Thus  all  of 
the  common  school  teachers  of  Prussia  receive  good,  funda- 
mental training  in  music.  The  theory  and  history  of 
music  and  the  works  of  masters  are  also  discussed.  The 
object  is  to  fit  every  teacher  to  instruct  his  classes  in  ele- 
mentary music,  which  also  is  a  required  subject  of  study. 
When  there  is  no  piano  or  organ,  as  is  the  case  in  most 
schoolrooms,  the  violin  serves  for  the  accompaniment.  The 
teacher,  generally,  in  villages  is  the  church  organist  and 
leader  of  the  singing.  There  are  over  1500  such  positions 
in  Prussia. 

The  requirement  of  Luther,  nearly  four  hundred  years 
ago,  that  every  teacher  should  be  required  to  be  able  to 
sing,  is  more  than  literally  fulfilled  in  the  German  schools 
of  to-day. 

FOREIGN   LANGUAGE. 

This  work  is  given  in  three  courses  of  3,  3  and  2  hours 
a  week,  students  being  admitted  to  the  course  for  which 
they  are  prepared,  Avithout  reference  to  the  class  to  which 
they  belong.  The  languages  are  Latin,  French  and 
English. 


Course  of  Study  in  Teachers'  Seminaries.         165 

Upon  completion  of  the  above  course  of  study  there  are 
three  things  required  of  each  candidate  for  graduation. 

1.  A  written  examination,  as  follows: 

a.  An  essay  on  some  pedagogical  theme. 

b.  An  exercise  describing  a  plan  of  teaching  religion. 

c.  Working  three  problems  in  arithmetic  and  geometry. 

d.  Discussion  of  a  topic  in  history,  natural  science,  and 
geography. 

e.  Playing  of  a  piece  on  the  organ. 

/.  Translation  of  an  exercise  from  and  into  a  foreign 
tongue. 

2.  Oral  examination  in  any  subject  of  the  course  that 
may  be  asked  for  by  the  royal  commission  in  whose  pres- 
ence it  is  held. 

3.  Practical  exhibition  of  his  ability  to  teach  by  instruct- 
ing a  class  before  the  royal  commission. 

If  successful  the  candidate  is  placed  on  the  teachers'  list 
ready  to  enter  service.  He  will  be  appointed  to  a  place  in 
the  district  if  there  are  vacancies  and  must  take  whatever 
is  given  him,  or  pay  back  the  expense  of  his  education. 
He  is  not  yet  admitted  to  the  full  grade  of  teacher,  but 
must  pass  a  second  examination  after  two  and  before  the 
end  of  five  years  from  the  time  of  his  graduation.  This 
second  test  is  largely  of  a  pedagogical  character,  intended 
to  bring  out  his  knowledge  of  methods  and  to  discover 
the  progress  he  has  made  while  engaged  in  teaching.  If 
the  probation  has  proved  satisfactory,  if  ability  to  teach 
and  properly  conduct  the  office  of  teacher  has  been  shown, 
and  if  the  second  examination  is  also  satisfactory,  the 
young  man  is  admitted  to  the  full  office  of  teacher  and 
takes  the  oath  of  office. 

Nor  does  the  interest  of  the  ahna  mater  cease  when  the 
young  graduates  leave  the  seminary;  the  principal  visits 
them  in  their  school,  watches  the  work  and  renders  them 
valuable  advice.     These  visits  are  also  of  great  value  to 


156  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

the  principal,  as  lie  can  thus  discover  the  weaknesses  in  his 
own  work  when  put  to  a  practical  test,  and  be 
Alma  mater  able  to  correct  the  mistakes  with  those  whom 
in  her  he  shall  Send  out  in  the  future.     Tliis  connec- 

studenta.  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^  seminary  with  the  schools,  and  con- 
tinued interest  of  the  school  in  her  graduates,  is  of  utmost 
importance  to  all  concerned,  and  especially  to  the  young 
teacher. 

The  seminaries  for  women  have  practically  the  same 
course  of  study,  and  the  same  conditions  must  be  met. 

Besides  the  regular  course  for  teachers,  there  is  also  a 
six- weeks'  summer  course  for  theological  students,  which 
all  must  take  before  they  enter  upon  a  pastorate.  They 
attend  classes  and  observe  work,  hear  lectures  and  try  to 
absorb  something  of  the  spirit  of  school-life.  This  is  re- 
quired because  a  large  number  of  the  pastors  are  also  local 
Course  for  school-inspectors.  Obviously  a  six-weeks'  course 
theological  cannot  do  much  to  prepare  for  this  important 
students.  office,  and  indeed  this  course  is  accepted  by 
many  as  a  sort  of  holiday  at  the  close  of  a  long  course  of 
study  in  the  gymnasium  and  university  before  entering 
upon  the  duties  of  pastor.  It  must  be  mentioned  also  that 
many  of  these  young  theologians  hear  lectures  on  pedagogics 
in  the  university  besides  their  theological  work,  in  order  to 
conscientiously  prepare  themselves  for  such  school  duties 
as  may  devolve  upon  them.  The  teachers,  however,  gener- 
ally desire  that  this  office  shall  be  taken  from  the  clergy 
and  given  to  pedagogically  trained  men. 


The  Examination  of  Teachers.  167 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

THE  EXAMINATION   OF  TEACHEB8. 

There  are  three  classes  of  teachers  in  the  German  com- 
mon school  system,  those  provisionally  appointed,  those 
who  have  permanent  positions,  and  those  who  have  inter- 
mittent work.  The  provisional  teachers  are  those  who 
have  completed  the  seminary  course  and  taken  what  is 
known  as  the  first  examination.  This  examination  is  held 
under  the  following  conditions : 

1.  An  examination  is  held  in  all  teachers'  xhc  first 
seminaries  of  the  kingdom  at  the  close  of  the  examinatica. 
school  year. 

2.  It  covers  all  subjects  of  the  course,  is  carried  out  by 
the  seminary  faculty,  and  in  the  presence  of  a  commission 
from  the  provincial  school  board,  and  of  the  school- 
inspectors  and  superintendents  of  the  district.  Represen- 
tatives of  the  Church  may  also  be  present,  but  no  other 
persons. 

3.  Tests  of  ability  to  teach  classes  of  children  are  required. 

4.  Candidates  that  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  re- 
ceive a  testimonial  signed  by  the  faculty  and  the  royal 
commission. 

5.  This  testimonial  shows  the  work  of  the  student  in 
each  subject,  together  with  his  tact  and  skill  in  teaching, 
his  moral  character,  his  fitness  to  teach,  these  being  in- 
dicated by  "  excellent,"  "  good,"  "  satisfactory." 

G.  This  testimonial  is  a  certificate  to  teach  for  three 
years,  after  which  there  is  a  second  and  final  examination 
necessary,  before  which  the  teacher  can  be  appointed  only 


158  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

provisionally.  If,  however,  a  student  receives  the  mark 
"excellent,"  does  superior  work  in  teaching,  and  secures 
a  permanent  place,  he  may  he  excused  from  the  second  ex- 
amination. This  examination  may  he  made  after  two 
years'  experience,  and  must  he  made  hefore  the  end  of 
five  years. 

7.  While  the  first  examination  has  more  to  do  with 
knowledge  of  subjects,  the  second  has  especially  to  do  with 
pedagogical  questions,  and  practical  school  matters. 

8.  Persons  not  trained  in  a  teachers'  seminary  may  take 
this  final  examination  at  the  same  time  and  under  the  same 
conditions  as  those  above  specified,  and  if  successful,  they 
also  are  allowed  to  teach. 

9.  Even  in  cases  of  teachers  who  have  passed  their  final 
examination  and  have  fixed  positions,  it  is  the  duty  of  their 
seminary  to  continue  an  oversight  of  their  work.     Should 

there  be  lack  of  progress  or  negligence  on  their 
the  seminary  part,  they  can  be  required  to  take  additional 
of  its  work  at    the    seminary.      Thus   the  teachers' 

gra  ua  es.  seminary  exerts  an  influence  which  reaches 
throughout  its  district  and  seiTes  in  a  sense  as  an  impelling, 
inspiring,  and  disciplinary  force. 

10.  The  director  of  the  seminary  must  visit  the  schools 
from  time  to  time  where  its  gi'aduates  are  teaching,  in 
order  to  judge  of  their  Avork,  advise  and  assist  them,  and 
at  the  same  time  gather  points  for  his  own  work.  Thus 
the  seminary  keeps  in  touch  with  the  schools,  studies 
their  wants,  and  the  teachers  are  benefited  by  wise  and 
sympathetic  counsel  and  oversight. 

Teachers  usually  take  the  second  examination  as  soon  as 
possible  after  the  required  two  years  in  order  to  secure  a 
permanent  place,  and  in  order  to  acquire  the  right  to  in- 
crease of  salary  and  to  be  entitled  to  pension.  Such  right 
is  secure  only  after  the  teacher's  permanency  has  been 
established. 


The  Examination  of  Teachers.  159 

T?i6  Second  Examination. 

The  details  of  the  second  examination  are  as  follows: 

1.  The  candidate  must  hand  in  a  thesis  on  some  peda- 
gogical topic  selected  from  several  subjects  pre- 
sented some  time  beforehand  by  the  commis-  nent  teacher, 
sion. 

2.  He  must  teach  a  class  of  children  in  the  presence  of 
the  commission,  having  presented  a  brief  of  his  plan  be- 
forehand. 

3.  In  case  the  first  two  conditions  are  satisfactorily  met, 
he  is  further  submitted  to  an  oral  examination  in  the  his- 
tory and  doctrines  of  education,  and  in  school  practice.  In 
the  history  of  education,  the  examination  covei's  the  whole 
subject  in  general  and  that  of  Prussia  in  particular. 
Knowledge  of  the  chief  pedagogical  works  and  the  leading 
educators  is  expected,  especially  those  that  have  exercised 
the  greatest  influence  upon  the  Prussian  schools.  The  can- 
didate may  select  a  special  field  in  which  he  has  informed 
himself,  concerning  which  his  examiners  question  him  more 
closely  and  expect  a  thorough  acquaintance.  He  is  also 
examined  as  to  the  psychological  foundations  of  education, 
and  further  work  in  this  line  is  indicated  for  him. 

In  school  practice  the  object  is  to  see  how  far  experience 
has  already  extended,  what  his  ability  is  to  properly  ques- 
tion, how  well  principles  and  methods  are  applied. 

Thus  by  means  of  these  two  examinations,  occurring  at 
the  close  of  the  school  wurse  and  after  sufficient  school- 
room experience,  covering  the  knowledge  of  subjects  and 
the  didactics  of  teaching,  being  most  comprehensive  and 
thorough,  the  authorities  establish  the  fitness  or  unfitness 
of  candidates  for  the  important  office  of  teaching.  It  is  a 
severe  crucible  to  pass  through,  but  when  once  success- 
fully passed,  the  teacher  enters  upon  a  life-position,  and 
has  no  further  examinations  to  pass  unless  he  chooses  to 


160  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

become  a  candidate  for  a  higher  office.  The  state  takes 
Permanency  every  precaution  to  prevent  unwortliy  and  un- 
of  posiuons.  fitted  persons  from  entering  upon  this  work. 
This  admirable  plan  not  only  secures  well-trained  and  prac- 
tical teachers,  but  the  very  small  number  discharged  for 
incompetency  or  immoral  life  proves  that  men  of  ability 
and  character  are  almost  universally  chosen,  and  that  they 
never  forget  the  importance  of  their  calling. 

The  final  examination  being  passed,  the  teacher  is  in- 
stalled with  proper  ceremony,  taking  the  following  oath 
of  office : 

I,  ,  swear  in  the  presence  of  the 

Almighty  and  AUwise  God,  that  I  will  be  submissive. 
Teachers'  faithful,  and  obedient  to  my  most  gracious  mas- 
oath  of  office,  ter,  His  Majesty  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  that 
I  will  fulfil  the  duties  of  my  office  to  the  best  of  my 
knowledge  and  ability,  so  help  me  God. 

(Signed) 

The  teacher  may  resign  a  position  upon  due  notice  to  go 
to  some  other  one,  but  can  be  dismissed  only  for  immor- 
ality or  incapacity.  It  is  seldom,  however,  that  a  teacher 
changes  from  one  position  to  another,  and  exceedingly 
rare  that  one  is  dismissed.  Having  required  severe  tests 
before  admitting  fully  to  the  teacher's  office,  the  state  pro- 
tects those  who  are  successful  by  giving  them  life-posi- 
tions. Because  of  the  severe  ordeal  to  be  passed  through 
Good  men  in  g^od  men  only  can  succeed,  and  because  of  the 
the  teacher's  assured  stability  such  men  are  willing  to  enter 
office.  upon  this  life.     This  explains  why  Germany  has 

such  splendid  teachers,  and  therefore  such  splendid  schools. 

The  third  class  of  teachers,  the  intermittent,  as  their 
name  indicates,  are  those  who  substitute,  do  irregular 
work,  teaching  part  of  the  time,  perhaps,  in  public  schools 
and  part  of  the  time  in  private  schools,  or  teaching  some 


The  Examination  of  Teachers.  161 

Bpecialty  like  gymnastics,  sewing,  etc.  Many  of  these 
iif  terward  become  regular  teachers,  doing  the  intermittent 
work  while  waiting  for  a  position.  These  teachers  have 
no  claim  upon  the  pensions. 

Examination  for  Teachers  of  Higher  Schools. 

For  those  who  wish  to  teach  in  the  upper  classes  of  the 
"  Mittel  "  schools*  there  is  a  further  examination  necessary. 
The  same  is  also  true  of  the  girls'  high  schools.  Only 
those  who  have  passed  the  second  examination  just  de- 
scribed and  have  a  record  for  excellent  teaching  can  be 
admitted  to  the  examination  for  teachers  of  the  higher 
schools.  A  special  commission,  made  up  of  a  member  of 
the  provincial  school  board,  two  school-superintendents, 
a  principal  and  a  teacher  from  a  normal  school,  and  a 
teacher  from  a  Oynmasium  or  a  Real  school,  thus  rep- 
resenting various  school  interests,  is  appointed  to  conduct 
these  examinations. 

This  examination,  like  the  former,  is  both  theoretical  and 
practical,  the  theoretical  part  being  written  and  oral,  and 
the  practical  part  the  conducting  of  a  lesson  with  pupils. 
It  is  similar  to  the  preceding  one,  only  more  is  expected. 
There  must  also  be  a  knowledge  of  at  least  two  foreign 
languages,  and  an  especial  acquaintance  with  the  particular 
branch  that  the  candidate  wishes  to  teach.  Careful  ex- 
amination as  to  knowledge  of  methods  of  instruction  in 
the  various  branches  is  required,  and  particularly  in  the 
chosen  field  of  the  candidate. 

*  "  Mittel  "  schools  are  of  a  higher  grade  than  the  corresponding 
common  schools.  They  are  intended  for  the  middle  class  of  people 
who  cannot  send  their  children  to  the  gymnasium  and  to  the  univer- 
sity, and  yet  who  desire  some  exclasiveness  and  can  afford  to  pay  for 
it.  These  schools  require  better-trained  teachers  and  have  a  some- 
what more  extended  course.  Sometimes  the  first  three  years  of  the 
"Mittel"  school  prepare  for  admission  to  the  g^ymnasium.  (See 
chapter  on  "  Mittel"  schools,  p.  206.) 


163  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

Examination  of  Principals. 

Those  who  wish  to  secure  positions  as  Rektor  (prin- 
cipal) must  in  addition  to  the  foregoing  pass  a  still  further 
examination  before  the  commission  last  mentioned.  A 
thesis  on  some  pedagogical  subject  that  the  commission 
has  given  the  candidate  must  be  handed  in.  He  is  espe- 
cially examined  in  methods,  school  law,  school  practice  and 
in  the  wider  territory  of  pedagogy  with  which  a  principal 
should  be  familiar. 

Separate  examinations  are  given  to  women,  covering, 
however,  nearly  the  same  ground,  particular  reference  being 
had  to  the  kind  of  work  that  women  are  allowed  to  do, 
Examination  that  is,  instructors  in  girls'  schools  and  in  the 
of  women,  lower  classes  of  boys'  schools.  The  course  of 
study  in  seminaries  for  women  is  practically  the  same  as 
that  for  men. 


The  Teachers.  163 


CHAPTER   XXIV. 

THE  TEACHERS. 

In  1893  the  total  number  of  graduates  from  the  111 
seminaries  for  men  was  3563,  and  the  total  number  of  stu- 
dents was  10,836.  In  the  11  seminaries  for  women  there 
were  703  students  with  232  graduates,  making  a  total  in 
the  122  teachers'  seminaries  of  Prussia  of  11,539  students 
and  3795  graduates.  The  increase  in  the  number  of  grad- 
uates from  the  normal  schools  since  1870. is  IIC^  per  cent, 
while  the  population  has  increased  only  21^  per  cent.  In 
1870  there  was  one  student  in  the  teachers'  seminaries  to 
4930  inhabitants,  while  in  1892  the  relations  were  1  to 
2764.  This  remarkable  increase  has  enabled  the  govern- 
ment to  displace  untrained  teachers  and  to  fill  vacant  po- 
sitions with  graduates  from  the  normal  schools.  At  the 
same  time  the  number  of  pupils  to  a  teacher  has  been  di- 
minished. Every  teacher  in  the  kingdom  must  have  been 
through  the  seminary  as  the  minimum  of  re-  niriistand- 
quirement,  or  have  had  at  least  an  equal  train-  ard  of 
ing  somewhere  else.  Tlius  the  teachers  are  all  t**cher8. 
of  a  high  educational  and  pedagogical  standard,  a  fact  that 
most  naturally  has  its  effect  upon  the  schools. 

The  teachers  come  from  all  ranks  of  life,  but  the  largest 
proportion  comes  from  the  farm.  In  1893  nearly  one  third 
of  all  the  teachers,  or  21,787,  were  of  this  class.  This  fact 
is  of  great  importance,  as  such  teachers  are  able  to  enter 
into  the  life  of  the  country  people  with  whom  they  live, 
and  therefore  command  the  respect  and  love  of  their 
patrons  to  a  wonderful  degree.     Another  fact  is  of  deep 


164  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

interest.     Not  less  than  13,208  teachers,  or  about  one  fifth 

of  the  total  number,  are  sons  of  teachers.     This  shows 

that  teachers  love  their  office  even  though  it  often  affords 

them  scanty  support ;  and  because  they  love  it,  they  gladly 

see  their  children  dedicate  themselves  to  it.     The  principal 

of  one  of  the  common  schools  in  Berlin  told  lis  that  his 

grandfather  and  father  before  him  were  teachers,  and  that 

it  was  a  great  grief  to  him  that  his  only  son  is 
Many  teach-         ^         ,       ^  ,      •         ,  l       J_^  ^ 

ers  come        not  a  teacher,  preferrmg  to  enter  the  regular 

from  homes  army  as  an  officer,  though  he  had  shown  special 
aptness  to  teach.  These  boys  coming  from  the 
home  of  teachers  enter  upon  this  work  under  especially 
favorable  prospects,  and  one  has  a  right  to  expect  them  to 
make  good  teachers,  and  the  facts  prove  the  expectation 
warranted.  Aside  from  whatever  ability  they  may  have 
inherited,  they  have  been  born  and  brought  up  in  the 
atmosphere  of  a  teacher's  home.  Whether  it  be  the 
teacher  in  the  remote  little  village,  where  day  after  day, 
and  year  after  year,  the  hundred  children  gather  around 
him  to  be  led,  instructed,  developed,  and  started  on  life's 
pathway,  and  where  perhaps  he  must  eke  out  his  existence 
on  1150  a  year;  or  whether  it  be  the  more  favored  teacher 
in  the  large  city,  our  experience  is  that  the  German  school- 
master loves  the  work  to  which  he  has  devoted  his  life. 
And  that  love  makes  him  as  truly  a  consecrated  and  self- 
sacrificing  man  as  if  he  had  devoted  himself  to  the  sacred 
calling.  A  nobler  class  of  men  does  not  exist  on  God's 
footstool  than  the  German  school-teachers.  So  it  is  no 
wonder  that  boys  grown  up  in  such  an  atmosphere  and 
under  such  an  influence  should  early  turn  their  thoughts 
to  teaching,  and  if  they  do  so,  they  bring  a  tremendous 
advantage  with  them. 

With  female  teachers  the  statistics  are  quite  different. 
Only  about  15  per  cent  of  the  8494  female  teachers  in 
1891  came  from  farmers'  homes,  while  about  one  third  of 


The  Teachers.  166 

the  total  number  are  daughters  of  government  officials, 
pastors,  judges,  physicians,  authors,  teachers,  women 
and  army  officers  combined.  The  reason  for  so  teachers, 
many  women  from  these  classes  turning  their  attention  to 
teaching  is  found  in  the  fact  that  their  prospects  for  suit- 
able marriage  are  not  good,  especially  as  men  living  upon 
a  salary  are  unable  to  give  a  dowry  with  their  daughtera,  a 
most  important  consideration  in  German  marriage  contracts. 
Teaching  affords  a  means  of  respectable  self-support,  and 
these  girls  devote  their  lives  to  it  with  great  devotion,  con- 
scientiousness and  efficiency.  Aside  from  teaching  there 
are  but  few  callings  open  for  women  of  this  class.  Of  the 
total  number  of  common  school  teachers,  71,731,  only  241 
have  not  passed  the  required  examinations,  that  is,  had 
the  training  of  a  teachers'  seminary  or  its  equivalent. 
These  latter  are  mostly  old  teachers  who  had  already  been 
definitely  appointed  before  the  present  requirements  were 
in  force,  and  because  of  their  efficiency  are  still  i^^g  service 
retained  in  service.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  ©^  teaciiers. 
2521  teachers  have  been  in  service  between  40-50  years, 
and  251  over  50  years.  The  average  of  teachers'  service 
throughout  Prussia  is  about  25  years.  Only  about  12 
per  cent  of  the  teachers  are  women,  and  it  is  only  in 
recent  years  that  they  have  received  recognition  to  teach 
on  practically  the  same  basis  as  men,  although  the  sem- 
inaries for  their  training  are  as  thorough  as  those  for  men.* 
Since  1874  they  may  teach  in  the  girls'  schools  and  the 
lower  class  of  boys'  schools,  having  the  same  right  to  in- 
crease of  salary  with  years  of  service,  pension,  etc.  The 
relative  number  of  the  two  sexes  in  Berlin  is  about  as  fol- 
lows :  in  girls'  schools  60  per  cent  women  and  40  per  cent 

*  The  first  seminary  for  training  women  for  the  calling  of  teaching 
was  established  at  MQnster  in  1830,  before  America  had  a  normal 
school.  The  first  Prussian  seminary  for  men  was  established  at 
Stettin  in  1735,  nearly  a  hundred  years  before  that  time. 


166  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

men,  and  in  boys'  schools  40  per  cent  women  and  60  per 
cent  men.  In  many  boys'  schools,  however,  no  women 
are  employed,  so  that  the  percentage  of  women  teachers  in 
Berlin  falls  much  lower  than  the  above  figures  would  seem 
to  indicate.  The  situation  is  still  less  favorable  for  women 
throughout  the  kingdom  as  a  whole  than  it  is  in  Berlin. 
Income  of  Some  cities  employ  women  only  for  gymnastics 
women  and  sewing  in  girls'  schools,  while  in  country 

teachers.  places  where  there  is  only  one  teacher  a  man  is 
always  chosen.  In  schools  where  women  are  employed  the 
disposition  of  their  work  is  left  largely  to  the  principal ; 
but  mathematics,  science,  and  religion  are  usually  assigned 
to  men,  and  geography,  history,  language,  etc. ,  to  women. 

The  increase  of  women  in  the  field  of  teaching  has  been 
remarkable.  In  1857  the  total  number  in  Prussia  was 
1523;  m  1886  it  was  6848;  in  1891,  8494,  of  whom  5308 
were  in  cities  and  3186  in  the  country.  From  1886  to  1891, 
a  period  of  5  years,  the  increase  was  24  per  cent.  In  the 
small  towns  the  schools  that  employ  women  are  almost 
entirely  Catholic,  the  Protestant  communities,  aside  from 
Berlin,  being  slow  to  employ  them  except  for  needlework 
and  gymnastics  for  girls. 

The  admission  of  women  to  this  field  has  always  been 
regarded  by  the  men  with  jealousy,  as  if  it  were  trespassing 
upon  their  rights.  The  traditions,  as  well  as  the  practice 
of  centuries  have  established  this  sentiment ;  but  a  change 
has  been  brought  about,  not  so  much  because  the  labor  of 
women  is  cheaper,  as  we  shall  see  elsewhere  that  the  dif- 
ference in  pay  is  not  so  great,  but  because  women  have 
shown  themselves  naturally  and  admirably  fitted  for  this 
calling.  Undoubtedly  the  smaller  cities  will  follow  the 
example  of  Berlin  more  and  more,  so  that  there  is  likely 
to  be  a  still  greater  increase  in  the  number  of  women  em- 
ployed in  the  schools.  It  is  not  to  be  expected,  however, 
that  the  schools  that  employ  but  one  teacher  will  ever  be 


The  Teachers.  167 

committed  to  the  care  of  women,  so  that  the  majority  of 
teachers  will  always  bo  men. 

The  instructions  which  the  state  gives  her  teachers  con- 
tain so  much  of  pedagogical  value,  and  so  fully  illustrate 
what  is  expected  of  the  teachers,  that  we  give  them  in  full, 
as  follows : 

1.  Every  teacher  should  in  the  school  and  out  of  it,  by 
word  and  example,  always  prove  himself  a  living  member 
and  true  servant  of  the  Church. 

2.  The  teacher  must  not  take  part  in  any  political  effort 
which  seeks  to  overthrow  the  government  which  he  has 
sworn  to  serve. 

3.  He  should  be  an  example  of  piety  and  good  morals, 
and  should  avoid  giving  offense  to  parents  or  children  of 
his  community. 

4.  In  case  of  drunkenness,  making  debts,  gambling, 
speculation,  indiscretions  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties,  he 
is  liable  to  expulsion  from  office  without  pension. 

5.  He  cannot  engage  in  any  other  business,  as  this  would 
withdraw  his  interest  from  his  school,  weaken  his  influence 
in  the  community,  and  cause  him  to  lose  the  respect  of 
parents  and  children.* 

6.  Before  taking  any  additional  office,  he  must  have  the 
consent  of  his  royal  school  board. 

7.  He  must  follow  the  school  programme  which  has  been 
approved  by  the  inspector,  and  must  also  make  the  daily 
entries  in  the  school  journal  required  by  law. 

8.  In  the  arrangement  of  his  school  work  he  must  consult 
the  school-inspector,  who  must  ratify  the  plans.  He  must 
do  his  utmost  to  assist  his  pupils  in  getting  the  necessary 
school  materials  and  school-books.  The  introduction  of 
new  books  requires  the  consent  of  the  school  authorities. 

*  Tbis  is  chiefly  to  prevent  him  from  engaging  in  trade  outside 
of  his  school-hours,  as  it  would  place  him  in  a  very  different  attitude 
to  his  people.     He  is  to  be  esteemed  much  as  the  pastor  is. 


108  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

9.  As  soon  as  the  children  are  old  enough,  the  teacher 
must  see  that  they  have  work  to  do  at  home,  but  are  not 
overburdened.  Before  assigning  home-work  he  must  go 
over  it  with  the  children. 

10.  Every  lesson  must  begin  and  close  punctually ;  he 
must  dress  neutly,  and  see  to  it  that  the  schoolroom  is  in 
proper  order. 

11.  Vacations  are  fixed  by  the  local  school  board,  but 
must  conform  to  the  general  requirements  as  to  number  of 
weeks  of  actual  school-work. 

12.  Punishment  may  be  administered  by  the  teacher  the 
same  as  by  parents ;  it  must  never  be  abused,  and  should 
be  seldom  resorted  to.  If  punishments  do  not  have  the 
desired  effect  the  teacher  must  report  the  case  to  the  school 
board. 

13.  The  teacher's  duty  of  discipline  does  not  cease  with 
the  schoolhours  or  school-grounds.  He  must  see  to  it  that 
his  pupils  are  respectful  to  their  seniors,  and  that  they 
engage  in  no  misdemeanors  on  the  street.* 

14.  He  should  encourage  and  help  pupils  who  have 
finished  school  to  go  on  with  their  studies,  and  should  also 
continue  his  own  studies.  Attendance  upon  teachers' 
meetings  is  encouraged. 

15.  In  many  places,  especially  in  the  country,  the  teacher 
is  a  sort  of  pastor's  assistant.  He  must  conduct  the  ser- 
vice in  the  absence  of  the  pastor,  reading  a  sermon.  At  all 
of  the  services  he  is  organist  and  leader  of  the  singing. 
He  also  assists  the  pastor  at  weddings,  baptisms,  funerals, 
etc.,  acting  as  a  kind  of  church- warden. 

*  It  often  occurs  that  the  teacher  calls  children  to  account  in  school 
for  offenses  of  a  public  character  that  he  has  learned  about.  The 
idea  of  discipline  is  that  at  all  times  he  may  call  his  pupils  to  account. 


The  Appointment  oj  Teachers.  169 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

THE   APPOINTMENT  OF  TEACHERS. 

The  question  of  the  appointment  of  teachers  is  hard  to 
make  clear,  owing  to  the  peculiar  historical  development  of 
the  school  system,  and  owing  to  the  lack  of  a  uniform 
practice.  The  first  schools  were  organized  and 
supported  by  the  Church,  by  individual  com-  formity  in  ' 
munities,  or  by  some  wealthy  landowner  or  appointinsr 
baron  called  patron.  These  schools  were  en- 
tirely separate  and  independent;  therefore  the  parties  that 
established  and  supported  them  selected  the  teacher  natur- 
ally without  question.  But  the  state  came  to  recognize  the 
necessity  of  schools  and  began  to  assist  in  their  support. 
Finally  the  state  adopted  compulsory  education  and  de- 
clared schools  to  be  necessary  for  the  upholding  and  de- 
velopment of  society,  and  therefore  state  institutions.  So 
all  institutions  of  learning,  whether  public  or  private, 
whether  common  school  or  university,  were  declared  to 
be  under  the  protection  and  control  of  the  state. 

At  the  same  time  the  state  did  not  intend  to  hinder  the 
progress  of  education  by  destroying  local  interest  i^ai  rights 
and  influence,  nor  by  asserting  absolute  an-  respected, 
thority  over  the  schools.  Thus  the  family  right  to  a  voice 
in  the  education  of  their  own  children,  and  the  local  right 
to  a  voice  in  the  direction  of  the  school,  rights  which  have 
been  jealousy  guarded  by  the  people  of  Prussia  until  the 
present  time,  are  recognized  by  the  state.  The  right, 
therefore,  to  appoint  the  teacher  rested,  and  still  rests,  in 
part,  with  those  that  established  the  school. 


170  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

The  manner  of  choosing  the  teacher,  therefore,  is  varied 
in  different  parts  of  Prussia,  there  being  no  general  law  on 
the  subject.  In  some  cases  it  is  the  patron,  in  others  the 
church  society,  the  landed  property  owners,  the  commu- 
nity at  large,  and  in  still  others  it  is  the  state  itself.  In 
general  the  state  assumes  authority  in  the  appointment  of 
teachers  in  proportion  to  its  share  in  their  support.  In 
cases  where  the  school  is  wholly  supported  by  private  means, 
the  state  simply  confirms  the  teacher.  The  state  either 
names  several  candidates  from  which  the  local  authorities 
make  a  choice,  or  the  representatives  of  the  community 
name  the  candidates  and  the  state  chooses,  the  two  bodies 
acting  together.  Thus  the  local  authorities  are  practi- 
cally free  in  their  choice,  the  state  seldom  failing  to  con- 
firm appointments  made  by  them,  and  the  state  on  the 
other  hand  ever  exercising  a  healthy  restraint  to  prevent 
the  choice  of  improper  candidates.  Many 
absoiuUsm  in  teachers  see  a  strong  tendency  toward  absolu- 
schooi  man-  tism  in  school  management,  the  parents  be- 
agemen  .  coming  more  and  more  indifferent  as  to  their 
local  rights,  and  the  state  gradually  trespassing  more  and 
more  upon  this  field.  Undoubtedly  the  authority  of  the 
state  holds  the  teacher,  the  school,  and  the  community  to 
higher  ideals,  and  prevents  ignorance  and  parsimony  from 
weakening  the  full  efficiency  of  the  school.  As  the  state 
specifies  the  minimum  course  of  study,  fixes  the  standard 
of  pedagogical  fitness  of  teachers,  has  its  own  inspectors  to 
see  that  all  requirements  are  met,  its  interests 
tiie  natural  will  not  suffer  if  it  does  not  interfere  in  the  local 
ruardians  of   management  of  each  individual  school.      This 

e  8c  00  .  g]2Q^i^  i3e  left  to  the  parents,  who  after  all  have 
the  closest  and  most  natural  interest  in  the  education  of 
their  own  children. 

Finally,  when  a  teacher  becomes  a  candidate  for  a  position, 
he  must  teach  a  class  of  pupils  in  the  presence  of  the  local 


The  Appointment  of  Teachers.  171 

school  authorities,  and  must  satisfy  them  of  his  fitness  to 
conduct  their  school  or  to  fill  the  position.     Without  such 
a  test  no  teacher  is  ever  appointed.     Having  xest  lesson 
satisfied  the  committee,  the  oath  of  office  is  ad-  reaiiired. 
ministered,  and  with  formal  ceremony  the  teacher  is  per- 
manently installed. 

The  following  points  in  the  manner  of  choosing  teachers 
may  be  mentioned  as  commendatory : 

1 .  The  influence  of  the  state  secures  a  high  standard  of 
educational  requirement  for  all  teachers. 

2.  It  prevents  the  exercise  of  parsimony  in  a  community 
able  to  support  a  teacher,  by  determining  the  grade  of 
teacher  which  they  may  employ. 

3.  It  selects  trained  teachers  as  school-inspectors,  who, 
being  acquainted  with  the  wants  of  a  school,  are  wise 
counsellors  in  the  selection  of  a  proper  teacher. 

4.  It  unites  with  the  community  in  the  support  of  the 
school,  and  therefore  in  the  choice  of  its  teacher. 

5.  It  limits  the  number  of  candidates  (generally  three), 
so  that  the  appointing  board  are  not  confused  by  a  great 
number  of  candidates,  fitted  and  unfitted. 

6.  When  a  choice  is  made  the  appointment  is  permanent, 
provided  the  period  of  probation  has  been  served  and  the 
required  second  examination  passed. 


172  School  Systems  of  Germany, 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

SALARIES   OF  TEACHERS. 

The  salaries  of  teachers  differ  greatly  according  to  local- 
ity, cost  of  living,  and  time  of  service.  The  law  requires 
that  *'  the  salary  shall  be  sufficient  to  meet  the  necessities 
of  life  according  to  the  conditions  in  each  community." 
Although  this  is  the  statute,  it  must  be  confessed  that  in 
many  cases  the  facts  come  short  of  its  realization,  as  sta- 
tistics which  we  shall  give  below  will  show.  The 
Bosse  a  friend  Minister  of  Education,  Dr.  Bosse,  is  a  warm 
of  tiie  friend  of  the  common  schools,  and  he  has  sought 

by  all  means  at  his  command  to  improve  the 
condition  of  the  teachers.  He  prepared  a  bill  in  1894 
which  sought  to  "  at  least  secure  for  the  teachers  the  simple 
necessities  of  life,"  but  was  obliged  to  withhold  it,  after 
finding  that  it  had  not  the  slightest  chance  of  success. 
Since  that  time  the  question  has  constantly  been  agitated, 
but  as  yet  without  result.  The  teachers  of  Prussia  in 
Poor  pay  of  convention  asked  for  a  minimum  salary  of  1200 
teachers.  marks  ($300),  the  minimum  salary  of  civil  offi- 
cers of  corresponding  rank  in  the  Prussian  service ;  but  the 
minister,  knowing  the  futility  of  asking  for  that  amount, 
proposed  to  ask  for  a  minimum  of  900  marks,  which,  as 
we  have  seen,  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  also.  As  there 
are  more  than  11,000  teachers  in  Prussia  whose  salary  is 
from  540  to  750  marks  ($135  to  $187.50)  a  year,  and  more 
than  23,000,  or  about  one  third  of  the  whole  body  of 
teachers,  receiving  less  than  900  marks,  even  this  law 
would  have  been  a  great  blessing.     Although  teachers  are 


Salaries  of  Teachers. 


173 


offioera  of  the  state,  it  is  a  notorious  fact  that  their  salaries 
are  less  than  those  of  like  training  and  rank  in  other  de- 
partments of  state  service.  The  carrying  out  of  the  above- 
mentioned  proposed  law  would  require  about  11,000,000 
marks  a  year. 

We  shall  give  a  series  of  original  tables  intended  to 
illustrate  the  salary  question  in  various  aspects.  They  are 
based  on  statistics  to  1891,  since  when  there  have  been 
no  general  statistics  collected.  No  especial  changes  have 
taken  place  since  that  time  except  in  Berlin  and  some 
other  large  cities.  In  order  that  a  false  impression  may 
not  be  given,  it  should  be  stated  that  in  all  schools  of  one 
teacher  and  for  principals  of  schools  having  several  teachers, 

dwelling  and  fire  free  of  cost  are  furnished  for  _, 

1  1   1  •     »       •!         T  Free  rent 

the  teacher  and  his  family.     In  most  country  and  fire  for 

places  a  garden   is  also  furnished.      As  these  teachers. 

include  the  most  of  those  receiving  the  small  salaries  above 

indicated,  their  situation,  though  bad  enough,  is  not  as  bad 

as  would  seem  at  first  glance. 

TABLE  OF  TEACUKKB'  SALARIES  IN  PRUSSIA. 


Amounts, 
marks. 

No.  of  City 
Teachers. 

No.  of  Countrj 
Teachers. 

TotaL 

Less  than 
450 

40 

87 

127 

451-600 

856 

2309 

2664 

601-750 

1544 

6127 

7671 

751-900 

2818 

8692 

11010 

901-1050 

2306 

6952 

9258 

1051-1200 

2220 

5041 

7261 

1201-1350 

2070 

5011 

7081 

1851-1500 

1783 

3339 

5122 

1501-1800 

8544 

3028 

6573 

1801-2100 

2261 

1092 

8358 

2101-2400 

1460 

888 

1848 

2401-2700 

683 

107 

739 

2701-3000 

284 

40 

264 

Over  3000 

2S2 

15 

267 

Total 


31009 


42228 


63287 


174 


School  Systems  of  Germany. 


This  gives  an  average  of  1452  marks  for  cities  and  1080 
marks  for  the  country,  and  a  general  average  of  1203 
marks. 

The  above  statistics  are  for  male  teachers.  The  averages 
for  female  teachers  are  as  follows:  In  cities,  1003  marks; 
in  the  country,  862  marks;  general  average  950  marks. 

The  following  table  will  show  the  salaries  of  teachers  in 
cities  of  various  sizes  selected  from  various  parts  of  the 
kingdom.  The  star  indicates  rent  free  or  an  allowance 
for  the  same,  and  sometimes  light  and  heat  included. 


cities. 

Population. 

Salaries  of 
Male 

Salaries  of 
Female 

Salaries  of 
Rektors. 

Teacliers. 

Teachers. 

Berlin 

.  1,750.000 

1300-3800 

1200-3300 

3400-4300* 

Breslau 

.      335,000 

1600-3000 

1300-3100 

3400-3900 

Oassel ....... 

73,000 

900-3200 

900-1950 

3600-4500* 

Cologne 

,      385,000 

1050-3800* 

900-1780* 

2300-3200* 

DUsseldorf 

,      150,000 

1000-2500* 

900-1500* 

3100-3300* 

Dantzic 

,      130,000 

1300-3600 

1000-1800 

1900-3450* 

Erfurt 

75,000 

1100-3800 

900-1700 

3000-4000 

Frankfurt-on- 

the-Main . . . 

.     800,000 

1800-3800 

1600-3600 

4400-6000 

Halle  

.      100,000 

1300-3700 

900-1800 

3600-5100 

Hanover 

.      165,000 

1300-3300 

1300-3100 

2300-4300 

Kiel 

70,000 

1200-3800 

1035-1500 

3200-3800 

Posen 

70,000 

1200-2700 

1050-1650 

3300-4500 

Stettin 

.      130,000 

1300-2800 

1300-3350 

3800-3800 

Wiesbaden. . . 

.       65,000 

1200-3200 

1300-2600 

3600-4200 

The  first  number  represents  the  minimum  salary  at  which 
the  teacher  begins.  This  is  increased,  generally  commenc- 
ing after  five  years'  service,  and  thereafter  in  periods  of 
three  years  until  the  maximum  is  reached.  There  is  no 
universal  law  governing  this  increase,  each  community 
deciding  for  itself.  Berlin  has  the  best  arrangement  in 
this  respect,  which  is  both  just  and  wise, — just  to  the 
teacher  and  wise  on  the  part  of  tlie  authorities.  As  it  il- 
lustrates the  general  plan  of  increasing  salaries,  and  as  it  is 


Salaries  of  Teachers.  175 

the  best  and  fairest  of  all  plans  yet  devised,  we  give  it.     It 
is  as  follows : 

The  teacher  begins  after  leaving  the  seminary  with  1200 
marks;  after  4  years  it  is  increased  to  1600;  scale  of 
after  6  years,  1900;  after  8  years,  2200;  after  11  salaries  in 
years  2600 ;  after  14  years,  2800 ;  and  every  third  **'""• 
year  thereafter  an  increase  of  200  marks,  until  the  maxi- 
mum of  3800  marks  is  reached,  after  31  years'  service. 
The  Rektor  begins  with  3400  marks,  receives  3800  After  6 
years,  and  the  maximum  of  4200  marks  after  12  years' 
service.  This  recognizes  the  increased  eflBciency  of  the 
teacher  with  the  yeai's  of  experience  and  broadening  of 
knowledge,  and  thereby  encourages  teachers  to  continue 
their  work  with  the  sure  hope  of  a  competency  in  their 
later  years  sufficient  for  their  simple  wants  and  those  of 
their  family.  This,  together  with  their  pension,  of  which 
we  shall  speak  later,  places  the  teacher  in  position  to  carry 
forward  the  responsible  duties  of  his  office  without  anxiety 
as  to  his  present  and  future  wants.  This  is  true  of 
teachers  of  city  schools.  But  it  is  far  from  true  in  the 
country  districts.  In  many  parts  of  Prussia,  the  gradual 
increase  of  salaries  with  years  of  service  is  not  carried  out 
by  the  communities  employing  them.  To  assist  the  com- 
munities, and  at  the  same  time  reward  the  teacher  better 
for  his  services,  the  state  grants,  in  all  places  of  less  than 
10,000  inhabitants,  to  each  teacher  an  additional  100  marks 
to  his  salary  after  10  years'  service,  another  100  after  15 
years,  20  years,  25  years,  and  30  years  each.  This  addi- 
tional sum  is  included  in  the  statement  of  salaries  (page 
173)  already  given. 

The  question  of  increase  in  salaries  has  been  agitated 
during  the  past  few  years  throughout  all  parts  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire.  In  most  of  the  states,  and  in  many  indi- 
vidual cities  and  provinces,  where  the  whole  kingdom  has 
not   made   a  forward  movement,  success  has  crowned  the 


176  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

effort,  while  Prussia  as  a  whole  still  remains  unchanged, 
other  German  ^^^^^Ji  Baden,  Gotha,  Saxe- Weimar,  and  other 
states  ahead  states,  besides  many  cities,  have  increased  sal- 
of  Fmssia.      ^j.jgg  materially  within  the  last  two  years. 

The  governmental  district  of  Potsdam  adopted  in  1892  a 
schedule  of  salaries  for  that  district,  which  illustrates  what 
is  desired  for  the  whole  of  Prussia.  It  divides  the  teachers 
of  the  district  into  six  classes,  five  classes  being  arranged 
according  to  the  size  of  cities  and  the  sixth  being  the  coun- 
try schools.  The  opposite  table  will  illustrate  the  work- 
ings of  the  plan. 

This  schedule  of  salaries,  or  a  similar  one,  would  in  a 
measure  satisfy  the  teachers  if  carried  out  throughout  the 
whole  kingdom,  and  is  an  act  of  justice  which  must  be 
carried  out  within  a  few  years,  or  the  schools  will  materially 
suffer.  Already  the  Minister  of  Education  has  placed  him- 
self on  record  as  "  not  being  responsible  for  the  success  of 
the  schools  unless  this  reform  is  carried  out." 

This  plan  recognizes  the  principle  generally  carried  out, 
not  alone  in  the  cities,  but  in  all  parts  of  Germany  where 
any  plan  is  followed,  that  of  regular  increase  of  salary  in 
periods  of  two,  three,  four,  or  five  years,  according  to  the 
length  of  service,  until  the  maximum  is  reached. 

It  will  be  noticed,  too,  that  the  salaries  of  male  and 
female  teachers  are  relatively  not  so  far  apart  as  in  Amer- 
ica. In  Berlin,  for  example,  both  sexes  begin  upon  the 
same  salary,  1200  marks,  and  while  the  maximum  salary  of 
the  female  teacher  is  only  2200  marks  and  that  of  the 
male  teacher  is  3800  marks,  the  former  is  reached  after 
eighteen  years'  service,  while  the  latter  not  till  after  thirty- 
one  years  of  teaching.  Even  then,  when  the  maximum  is 
reached,  the  female  teacher  receives  about  sixty  per  cent 
as  much  as  the  male  teacher,  a  higher  relative  per  cent 
than  will  be  found  in  any  of  our  great  cities. 


Salaries  of  Teachers. 


177 


SALARIES  (IN  MABKS)  OF  THE  POTSDAM  DISTRICT. 

/.  Class. 

Salaries. 

Kinds  of  Teachers.       For  the  Allowance 

first  10  After  for  Rent, 

years.    10-15     15-30  20-25  25-80  80  yrs. 

Rektors 2400    2600    2800  3000  3800  3600  600 

Head  teachers* 2400    2C00    2800  3000  3300  3600  600 

Male  teachers 1400    1600    1800  2000  2800  2600  450 

Female  teachers....     1000    1100    1200  1300  1450  1600  200 

77.  Class. 

Rektors 2000  2200  2850  2500  2700  2900  500 

Head  teachers 1750  1950  2100  2250  2450  2650  500 

Male  teachers 1300  1500  16500  1800  2000  2200  300 

Female  teachers. .  .  1000  1090  1180  1300  1420  1540  160 

///.  Class. 

Rektors 1850  2050  2200  2350  2550  2750  400 

Head  teachers 1600  1800  1950  2100  2300  2500  400 

Male  teachers 1200  1400  1550  1700  1900  2100  250 

Female  teachers...   900   990  1080  1200  1320  1440  140 

IV.  Class. 

Rektors 1700  1840  1950  2050  2200  2300  300 

Head  teachers 1500  1640  17.50  1850  2000  2100  300 

Male  teachers 1100  1240  1350  1450  1600  1700  200 

Female  teachers....   850   920   990  1080  1170  1270  100 

F.  Class. 

Rektors 1600  1750  1850  1950  2100  2200  200 

Head  teachers 1400  1550  1650  1750  1900  200  200 

Male  teachers 1050  1200  1300  1400  1550  1650  180 

Female  teachers....   800   870   940  1030  1120  1220  100 

VI.  Class. 

Male  teachers. 1000    1150    1250  1850  1500  1600    100-150 

Female  teachers....      750      820      890  980  1070  1160  75 


*  Most  German  schools  have  a  head  teacher  who  is  a  sort  of  vice- 
principal.  In  some  cases  the  principal  is  called  head  teacher  in- 
stead of  Rektor. 


178 


School  Systems  of  Germany. 


The  table  given  below  shows  the  income  of  women  in  the 
Prussian  common  schools: 


}unt  of  Salaries 

Number  of 

Amount  of  Salaries, 

Number  of 

Marks. 

Teachers. 

Marks. 

Teachers. 

s  than  300 

3 

1201-1350 

934 

301-450 

10 

1351-1500 

806 

451-600 

83 

1501-1650 

615 

601-750 

371 

1651-1800 

394 

751-809 

356 

1801-1950 

249 

810 

84 

1951-3100 

49 

811-900 

1055 

3101-3350 

19 

901-1050 

1749 

3351-3400 

9 

1051-1200 

1805 

Total 

..  8489 

A  comparison  of  this  table  with  the  corresponding  table 
for  male  teachers  (page  173)  shows  that  the  salaries  of 
women  are  relatively  better  than  those  of  men.  While  the 
number  of  the  former  receiving  less  than  900  marks  is  21 
per  cent  of  the  whole  number  of  women  teachers,  the  num- 
ber of  the  latter  is  33  per  cent.  A  comparison  of  the  sal- 
aries of  the  two  sexes  for  all  of  the  provinces  shows  the 
Women  paid   following :  In  the  country  the  salaries  of  female 

relatively  teachers  is  87  per  cent  of  those  of  males;  in 
better  tMn  ^  ' 

America.        cities,  70  per  cent.     In  all  parts  of  Germany 

women  are  gaining  ground  as  teachers,  and  the  above  sta- 
tistics tend  to  show  that  it  is  not  because  they  are  so  much 
cheaper,  but  because  of  their  fitness  for  the  work  of 
teaching. 

The  pay  ef  women  as  well  as  that  of  men  in  the  king- 
dom of  Saxony  is  larger  than  that  of  Prussia.  Indeed,  the 
conditions  in  Saxony  are  considered  the  best  of  any  in  Ger- 
many so  far  as  liberality  in  the  support  of  schools  is  con- 
cerned. 

The  following  table  will  show  the  salaries  in  the  higher 
schools  in  Prussia,  such  as  Gymnasia,  Realschools,  Real- 
gymnasia^  etc,  which  have   been  regulated  since   1893. 


Salaries  of  Teachers. 


179 


While  tlie  discussion  of  the  higher  schools  does  not  come 
within  the  scope  of  this  work,  this  table  will  be  interesting 
as  a  means  of  comparison. 


8ALABIS8  (m  MASKS)  IN  HI6HER  SCHOOLS. 


aties. 


Principal. 


Berlin 6600-7200 

Cities  of  50,000  or  more  5100-6000 
All  other  cities 4500-6000 


Regular 
Teachers. 

2100-4800 
2100-4800 
2100-4800 


Special 

Teacbers  and 

Assistants. 

1600-3200 
1600-8200 
1600-3200 


There  is  an  allowance  for  rent  in  each  case  of  from  600 
to  1000  marks  for  principals,  from  360  to  660  marks  for 
regular  teachers,  and  from  160  to  432  marks  for  assistants, 
according  to  number  of  years  of  service.  The  increase  in 
salary  takes  place  in  periods  of  from  three  to  seven  years 
until  the  maximum  is  reached. 

The  salaries  of  teachers  in  the  teachers'  seminaries  are 
also  fixed  in  Prussia  as  follows : 

SALARIES  (IK  MAKK8)  IN  TBACHEKS'  SEMINARIKS. 
seminaries.    Principal.  Head  Teacher.    Ordin^^        Assistant       ^Female 
Berlin...     4000-5400    3600-4800    2400-2600    1200-1800    1500-2100 
Provincial  4000-5400    3000-4000    1800-3200    1200-1800    1000-2000 

In  addition  there  is  also  the  customary  allowance  for 
rent  in  case  a  dwelling-place  is  not  furnished. 

These  tables  will  sufficiently  illustrate  the  question  of 
teachers'  salaries,  and  when  these  amounts  are  divided 
by  four  to  reduce  to  dollars,  and  when  it  is  remembered 
that  long  years  of  preparation  are  absolutely  necessary  in 
order  to  get  an  appointment  at  all,  and  that  many  years  of 
service  must  be  given  before  the  maximum  is  reached,  the 
American  teacher  will  be  able  to  have  some  fair  conception 
of  this  question.  Undoubtedly  one  must  be  free  from 
anxious  care  for  "  daily  bread  "  in  order  to  give  the  best 


180  School  Systems  of  Germany, 

strength  to  any  calling,  and  this  is  especially  true  of  the 
teacher's  calling.  That  a  great  many  German  teachers  are 
not  free  from  this  care  has  been  testified  to  by  the  highest 
authority  in  educational  matters  in  Germany,  the  Minister 
of  Public  Education.  And  yet,  the  teachers  go  on  with  the 
daily  duties  of  their  school-room  patiently,  faitlifully,  and 
devotedly,  as  though  all  of  their  wants  were  fulfilled.  They 
are  deserving  of  better  financial  support,  which  may  the 
near  future  bring  them ! 


Tbe  Training  of  Teasbers  in  America.  181 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

THE  TBAINING   OF  TEACHERS  IN   AMERICA. 

In  tb»  last  few  chapters  we  have  discussed  the  training, 
examination,  appointment,  and  support  of  teachers.  The 
question  now  arises,  What  lessons  do  these  subjects  teach 
that  can  be  applied  to  America  ?  We  turn  our  attention 
first  to  the  training  of  teachers  in  America. 

To  be  admitted  to  a  normal  school  there  should  be  quali- 
fications equal  to  those  necessary  to  enter  col-  „  _ 

^  ''  Entrance 

lege,  though  not  necessarily  the  same  qualifica-  qnaUfica- 

tions.*     The  fitting  of  teachers  for  the  common  tionsofanor- 

,      1    J  ,  •      J.     •    •  1.  malscliool. 

schools  does  not  require  training  on  such  narrow 

lines  as  the  definite  requirements  of  college  entrance  de- 
mand, especially  the  preparation  to  enter  a  classical  course. 
The  various  sciences  are  of  far  more  importance  to  the 
teacher  of  the  common  school  than  Greek  or  Latin.  The 
course  of  pupils  in  the  high  school  who  have  decided  to 
go  to  the  normal  school  should  be  shaped  to  that  end. 
The  normal  school  course  should  be  two  yeare,  no  candi- 
dates under  eighteen  years  of  age  being  admitted.  Thus 
if  the  boy  (or  girl)  enters  the  high  school  at  q^^^^^^  to 
fourteen,  at  eighteen  he  would  be  ready  for  the  be  is  yeara 
normal  schools,  and  at  twenty  would  graduate.  "'  ■*^*' 
If  he  entered  the  high  school  a  year  later,  and  consequently 
graduated  from  the  normal  school  at  twenty-one,  so  much 
the  better. 

The  two  years'  course  should  include  a  continuation  of 

*  Since  writing  this  chapter  we  find  that  this  agrees  substantially 
with  the  recommendation  of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen. 


182  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

the  academic  studies,  but  especially  the  purely  pedagogical 
work,  such  as  history  of  education,  theory  of  teaching, 
school  law,  didactics,  together  with  psychology,  and  phil- 
osophy of  education.  Already  during  the  last  half  of  the 
first  year  the  students  should  be  required  to  carefully  ob- 
serve class-work,  to  attend  discussions  of  the  same  in  the 
conferences,  to  attend  lectures  on  pedagogical  questions, 
and  to  reproduce  the  work  in  the  form  of  descriptions  or 
sketches. 
During  the  last  year  they  should  have  charge  of  a  class 

of  not  less  than  twenty  pupils,  in  two  or  more 
Must  teach  subjects,  for  at  least  half  of  the  year.  For  this 
a  year.  work  they  should  be  held  responsible,  just  the 

same  as  if  they  were  teaching  independently ; 
it  should  be  subject  to  criticism  and  suggestion  by  the 
training  teacher,  who  should  ever  be  ready,  by  kindly 
advice,  wise  suggestion,  and  helpful  direction,  based  upon 
broad  experience,  to  lead  the  student-teacher  into  a  proper 
method  of  instructing.  The  object  to  be  sought  is  not 
imitation  of  some  method  of  instruction,  but  the  filling  of 
individnauty  *^®  student  with  the  inspiration  of  teaching, 
to  be  encour-  leaving  each  to  work  out  his  individual  method, 
aged.  rjij^g  former   makes   him  the   automaton,    the 

parrot,  who  gives  out  each  day  and  each  week  the  same 
material  in  the  same  way,  without  progress  and  with  little 
thought ;  the  latter  makes  him  a  live  being,  always  think- 
ing and  always  awakening  thought,  progressive,  ener- 
getic, inquiring,  having  no  trouble  about  method,  as  his 
individuality  will  make  his  method.  This  spirit  awakened 
in  the  young  teacher,  cultivated  and  shaped  by  the  ex- 
perienced teacher,  is  the  highest  aim  to  be  sought.  There 
should  be  daily  conferences  of  the  whole  class  to  discuss 
DaUy  con-  ^^^  work  of  the  day,  in  which  all  of  the  stu- 
ferences.  dents  should  take  part,  the  teacher  having  the 
final  word.     There  should  also  be  private  conferences  be- 


The  Training  of  Teachers  in  America,  183 

tween  the  training  teacher  and  each  individual,  in  which 
things  may  be  discussed  which  are  not  for  others.  The 
wise  critic  will  not  simply  point  out  faults,  but  will  always 
be  able  to  suggest  a  remedy. 

At  the  end  of  the  week  there  should  be  a  general  con- 
ference at  which  all  of  the  faculty  and  the  graduating 
class  are  present.  The  work  of  the  week  should  Q^^„f^  ^^^_ 
be  reviewed,  and  sometimes  a  class  of  children  ference  eacb 
should  be  brought  in  and  instructed  to  furnish  ^"** 
a  topic  for  discussion.  General  pedagogical  themes  should 
come  up  here  also  for  discussion ;  and  also  questions  of  in- 
terest in  that  particular  school,  such  as  cases  of  discipline, 
promotion,  dealing  with  backward  pupils,  awakening  in- 
terest, etc. ,  etc.  These  questions  are  of  practical  value  to 
the  young  teacher,  and  will  suggest  the  manner  of  treat- 
ment when  he  meets  them  in  his  future  work. 

If  this  work  is  carefully  carried  out,  the  normal  grad- 
uate will  enter  upon  his  first  position  with  an  experience 
better  than  that  of  a  teacher  of  a  year's  experience  without 
the  normal  training,  in  that  the  former  has  had  practically 
the  same  experience  as  the  latter,  and  has  at  the  same  time 
been  wisely  directed. 

Without  discussing  the  subjects  of  the  course  of  study 
in  detail,  we  call  attention  simply  to  drawing.  Too  great 
stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  that  in  preparing  importance 
teachers  for  their  work.  Throughout  the  course  <»^  drawiagr. 
commencing  in  the  high  school,  if  not  before,  drawing 
should  receive  great  attention.  Every  teacher  should  be 
able  to  draw  a  sketch  of  an  object,  an  animal,  a  plant,  on 
the  blackboard  or  on  paper,  rapidly  and  accurately.  This 
is  one  of  the  teacher's  most  valuable  and  necessary  accom- 
plishments. 

The  training  above  indicated  suits  the  American  con- 
ditions in  that  it  leaves  the  most  of  the  academic  train- 
ing to  the  high  school  instead  of  having  a  three  years' 


184  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

course,    as    in   Germany,    where    the    first  year    of    the 

teachers'   seminary  is  devoted  purely  to  academic  work. 

This    separates    the   normal    from   the    purely   academic 

^,„  work,  the  academic  study  in  the  normal  school 

Difference  '  ,        ^  ,    , 

between  tills  bemg  carried  on  for  the  purpose  of  deepenmg 

and  tie  Ger-  2inA  extending  the  work  begun,  and  also  offer- 
^  '       ing  opportunity  for  giving  model  lessons  on  the 

part  of  the  faculty.  Better  preparation  being  demanded 
than  most  normal  schools  now  require,  more  time  could 
be  devoted  to  the  purely  pedagogical  work,  which  is  the 
real  business  of  the  normal  school. 

A  difficulty  has  undoubtedly  suggested  itself  to  those 
familiar  with  our  normal  school  work,  and  that  is,  how  to 
furnish  so  large  classes  of  pupils  to  each  student-teacher 
for  so  long  a  time.  A  normal  school  that  graduates  100 
teachers  a  year  would  need  a  practice  school  of  about  400 
pupils,  a  condition  that  could  scarcely  be  met  anywhere. 
But  to  teach  a  smaller  class  of  pupils  than  20  would  illy 
serve  the  purpose  of  fitting  a  teacher  to  take  charge  of  a 
class  of  50  or  60  independently;  and  to  teach  less  than 
half  a  year,  and  less  than  two  subjects,  would  accomplish 
but  little  in  establishing  good  habits  and  methods  of  in- 
SmaUernor-  struction.  The  only  solution  of  the  question 
mai  schools,  apparent  is  to  establish  smaller  normal  schools, 
say  for  sixty  or  seventy  students.  These  should  be  re- 
ceived only  once  a  year  at  the  opening  in  September,  and 
when  the  time  comes  that  teachers  are  permanently  ap- 
pointed this  will  adjust  itself,  as  most  teachers  will  be  ap- 
pointed at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  and  there  will  be  no 
demand  for  the  mid- winter  graduates.  This  would  require 
the  establishment  of  many  small  normal  scliools,  and  just 
as  there  are  certain  advantages  in  small  colleges,  so  there 
are  advantages  in  a  small  normal  school.  The  students 
come  into  closer  contact  with  their  instructors,  and  with 
each  other ;  the  schools  would  necessarily  be  located  in  small 


The  Training  of  Teachers  in  America.  185 

towns,  so  that  students  would  have  the  advantage  of  the 
social  life  so  important  for  every  teacher,  and  Advanta^M 
the  community  would  be  elevated  by  the  pres-  of  smau  nor- 
ence  of  the  school ;  many  more  young  men  and  "*^  »«i"»»i*« 
women  would  avail  themselves  of  the  opportunity  to  fit 
themselves  for  teaching  because  the  school  is  near  at  home, 
thereby  solving  the  problem  of  lack  of  trained  teachers; 
the  schools  in  the  neighborhood  would  not  be  satisfied 
with  anything  but  normal  teachers,  thereby  elevating  the 
tone  of  education.  These  normal  schools,  liot  being  as 
large,  would  not  need  be  as  expensive  as  those  now  estab- 
lished, so  that  no  great  outlay  of  money  would  be  required. 
But  what  shall  be  done  with  the  normal  schools  now 
established  ?  We  answer,  let  them  continue  as  at  present 
so  far  as  numbers  are  concerned,  and  where  they  have  not 
enough  pupils  in  their  practice  department  to  meet  the 
above  requirements,  let  an  arrangement  be  made  with  the 
local  school  authorities  whereby  the  students  of  the  normal 
school  shall  teach  in  the  public  schools.  This  would  enable 
the  local  board  to  shorten  their  teaching  force,  and  if  the 
normal  student  be  required  to  teach  for  a  whole  term,  or, 
better  still,  for  a  whole  year,  under  the  inspection  of,  not 
alone  the  normal  faculty,  but  also  of  the  local  superin- 
tendent acting  in  harmony  with  the  normal 

school,  none  of  the  parties  concerned  would  be  ^»i  P°*iic 

■''  school  to 

the  loser.     The  young  teacher  would  have  the  work  in  har. 

best  kind  of  practice,  the  pupils  would  have  monywitii 
good  teaching,  and  the  school  board  would  save  aciiooi. 
expense.     Above  all  things  it  is  necessary  that 
the  students  of  our  normal  schools  have  more  actual  experi- 
ence in  teaching  during  their  course. 

Another  valuable  suggestion  comes  from  the  Germans, 
and  that  is  the  active  interest  of  the  normal  school  in  her 
graduates  when  they  commence  teaching,  and  the  close 
connection  between  the  normal  school  and  the  common 


186  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

schools  of  the  district.  The  normal  school  should  have  not 
Continued  In-  simply  the  interest  of  an  alma  mater  in  her  sons, 
terest  of  the  but  should  also  have  a  certain  authority  over 
*  ***"*  the  teachers  in  its  vicinity,  whether  its  own  grad- 
uates or  not.  The  principal  should  have  time  to  visit 
schools,  so  as  to  make  suggestions  and  be  helpful  to  the 
teachers,  thus  keeping  the  whole  system  in  perfect  har- 
mony, so  as  to  subserve  the  best  interests  of  education. 
Such  oversight  could  not  fail  to  be  of  utmost  value  to  the 
young  teacher;  and  on  the  other  hand,  it  would  be  of 
great  value  to  tlie  normal  school,  in  that  it  would  be  kept 
in  touch  with  the  general  educational  interests  of  the  lo- 
cality and  the  state.  As  the  graduates  of  a  normal  school 
are  recognized  throughout  the  state  and  should  be  free  to 
secure  employment  anywhere  in  the  state,  it  is  important 
that  all  the  normal  schools  work  in  harmony.  Therefore, 
all  must  work  under  the  same  general  plan,  and  by  fre- 
quent conferences  on  the  part  of  the  principals,  keep  in 
sympathy  with  each  other. 

Finally,  in  each  state  there  should  be  one  or  more  col- 
legiate normal  schools  with  a  full  four  years'  course.  The 
CoUegiate  object  of  these  schools  should  be  to  fit  teachers 
schools  nee-  ^^^  *^®  ^^^^  schools,  for  principals,  for  super- 
essary.  intendents,  and  for  school-inspectors.     A  full 

year  of  teaching  should  be  required  and  the  training  should 
be  fully  equal  to  a  college  course,  only  modified  to  suit  tbe 
teacher's  profession.  The  course  should  be  so  arranged 
that  graduates  from  lower  normal  schools  could  enter  and 
complete  the  course  in  the  additional  two  years,  and  also 
so  as  to  invite  college  graduates,  who  should  be  able  to 
complete  it  in  one  year.  The  work  of  the  last  year,  there- 
fore, should  be  almost  entirely  pedagogical.  Graduates 
should  be  recognized  a&  having  completed  the  equal  of  a 
college  course,  and  should  therefore  be  entitled  to  the 
Bachelor  of  Arts  degree.     Students  having  completed  this 


The  Training  oj  Teachers  in  America.  187 

course  would  be  far  better  prepared  to  teach  in  the  liigh 
schools  thau  college  graduates  who  have  hud  only  Bachelor  of 
the  limited  amount  of  pedagogics  that  our  col-  ^*  n  ^1^ 
leges  give,  and  who  have  not  had  the  extra  year  normal 
in  the  normal  school  above  specified.     It  should  sraduatea. 
always  be  possible  for  teachers  who  have  graduated  from 
the  lower  normal  schools,  and  Mho  have  shown  marked 
ability  in  teaching,  to  be  promoted  to  higher  work.     They 
should  be  required,  however,  either  to  take  the  last  two 
years'  course  or  pass  an  examination  covering  that  work 
and  showing  the  proper  pedagogical  fitness.  Dili-  opportunity 
gent  teachers  would  thus  be  encouraged  to  pur-  for  ambitions 
sue  independent  study,  and  some  of  the  best  ****=•»*"• 
talent  would  not  be  excluded  from  the  higher  work. 

The  possession  of  a  college  diploma  alone  ought  not  to 
admit  to  the  rank  of  high-school  teacher.  There  should 
also  be  required  certain  professional  pedagogical  training, 
obtained  either  in  a  college  or  in  a  higher  normal  school, 
or  by  experience  in  lower  school  work. 

These  requirements  are  demanded  by  the  times.  Teach- 
ing is  recognized  as  a  profession,  hence  the  necessity  of 
professionally  trained  men  and  women.  There  is  no  more 
reason  for  a  man  being  admitted  to  the  ranks  of  Teaching  a 
professional  teacher  without  professional  train-  profession, 
ing  than  for  his  admission  to  the  bar  or  the  pulpit  without 
professional  preparation,  even  though  he  has  completed  a 
college  course.  There  is  no  longer  any  excuse  for  this 
lack  of  professional  training.  The  state  is  abundantly  able 
to  furnish  it,  and  there  are  plenty  of  men  and  women 
ready  to  devote  themselves  to  it  if  the  state  will  give  proper 
assurance  of  support  and  protection  to  such  as  will  prepare 
themselvesL  and  consecrate  their  lives  to  it.  How  the 
state  shall  give  this  assurance  will  be  discussed  in  another 
chapter. 


188  School  Systems  of  Germany, 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

APPOINTMENT  AND   SUPPORT  OF  TEACHERS   IN   AMERICA. 

The  safest  and  best  management  of  tlie  school  interests 
of  a  community  rests  with  those  most  interested,  and  that 
The  commiini-  ^^  ^^^^  ^^®  community  itself.  There  can  never 
ty  to  control  be  any  other  direct  school  management  in  Amer- 
its  school.       j^g^^  ^Q^  jg  g^jjy  Q^jjgj.  desirablc.     This  is  entirely 

in  accord  with  the  spirit  of  our  institutions,  and  the  strong 
tendency  to  absolutism  so  manifest  in  Prussia  would  not 
be  tolerated  for  a  moment.  The  people  are  jealous  of 
their  local  rights,  and  can  be  intrusted  to  manage  their 
own  school  affairs.  No  one  can  possibly  have  so  deep  an 
interest  in  the  education  of  their  children  as  the  parents 
themselves.  Hence  the  parents,  through  their  representa- 
tives, must  ever  control  their  school  interests.  But  there 
are  certain  limitations  now  observed  in  which  the  state 
asserts  its  right?,  and  which  must  continue  to  be  observed. 
For  example,  the  state  fixes  the  qualification  of  teachers 
Limitations  and  licenses  them,  decides  the  minimum  of 
of  the  sute.  iimQ  that  school  may  be  kept,  taxes  property 
for  general  school  purposes,  and  supports  local  boards  in 
the  assessment  of  taxes,  and  distributes  school  moneys  to 
communities  in  which  the  above  conditions  are  met.  In 
some  cases  it  also  enforces  attendance  at  school  and  fixes 
the  minimum  course  of  study.  Thus  it  will  b6  seen  that 
while  the  community  manages  its  own  schools  it  must 
do  so  subject  to  certain  conditions  which  the  experience 
and  wisdom  of  the  past  have  taught  to  be  necessary.     These 


Appointment  and  Support  of  Teachers  in  America.  189 

limitations  slionld  be  extended  further,  but  still  without 
trespassing  upon  proper  local  rights.  We  have  already 
proposed  the  establishment  of  state  boards  of  education, 
and  the  fixing  of  a  minimum  course  of  study  (see  p.  51),  to 
which  of  course  every  local  board  must  conform. 

There  are  also  important  changes  necessary  in  the  ap- 
pointment of  teachers,  which  are  vital  to  the  success  of 
our  schools.  Appointments  should  be  made  by  the  local 
school  board  as  now  in  communities  that  employ  only  a 
small  number  of  teachers,  but  the  advice  of  the  district 
school-inspector  should  be  sought.  In  cities  superintend- 
that  employ  a  superintendent,  he  should  appoint  ent  to  appoint 
the  teachers,  the  board  confirming.  The  sup-  teachers, 
erintendent  should  be  elected  for  a  period  of  ten  years, 
and  the  teachers  should  be  appointed  indefinitely.  The 
reason  why  a  superintendent  should  be  appointed  for  a 
limited  time  is  that  the  importance  of  the  position  makes 
it  necessary  that  a  man  of  vigorous  powers  as  well  as  suit- 
able capacity  should  occupy  it.  Thus  when  debilitated 
by  age  or  for  other  ree-sons  he  becomes  unfitted,  complica- 
tions will  be  avoided  by  the  expiration  of  the  term.  This 
limit  of  time  for  which  a  superintendent  is  appointed 
does  not  prevent  a  reappointment  at  the  expiration  of  a 
tenn.* 

But  the  reasons  for  appointing  a  superintendent  for  n 
limited  period  do  not  hold  for  the  regular  teachers.  Their 
position  is  not  so  important,  and  a  whole  system  does  not 
depend  upon  their  ^lealth  or  capability.  There  could 
always  be  conditions  specified  by  which,  if  either  the  su- 
perintendent or  teacher  should  become  inefficient,  he  could 
be  removed.  Only  immorality  or  inefficiency  should  be  a 
cause  for  removal.     In  order  that  normal  graduates  shall 


*  The  superintendent  of  the  Berlin  common  schools  is  appointed 
for  twelve  years,  and  is  now  on  his  second  term. 


190  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

prove  their  fitness  before  being  entitled  to  a  permanent 
Three  years'  appointment,  three  years  of  actual  teaching  ex- 
joung  °°  °^  perience  should  be  required  of  them  after  leav- 
teacbers.  ing  the  normal  school.  Then  an  examination  in 
pedagogical  questions  should  be  required  of  them  to  test 
their  educational  progress,  reports  of  their  work  should  be 
collected  from  those  under  whom  they  have  taught  (dis- 
trict school-inspector,  superintendent,  board  of  education 
principal  of  normal  school),  and  if  these  are  satisfactory, 
a  certificate  of  permanent  teacher  should  be  issued  to  them. 
With  the  training  of  the  normal  school  or  its  equivalent, 
and  with  the  three  years'  successful  experience,  school  boards 
"will  be  perfectly  safe  in  appointing  teachers  to  permanent 
positions.  The  experience  of  Germany  has  shown  this  to  be 
perfectly  safe,  as  her  teachers  under  this  plan  are  pro- 
gressive, earnest,  and  successful,  and  there  is  no  reason  to 
expect  that  American  teachers  with  like  preparation  and 
like  security  in  their  positions  would  be  any  less  honorable, 
progressive,  or  efficient. 

But  this  permanency  could  not  apply  to  teachers  of  less 
training  than  that  of  the  normal  school.  Such  teachers 
must  be  employed  for  some  time  to  come  until  there  are 
sufiicient  fully  qualified  teachers.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
Teachers  not  we  do  not  insist  that  all  teachers  shall  be  normal 

necessarily  orraduates,  nor  that  without  a  normal  diploma  a 
normal  grad-  .  ^     . 

nates.  teacher  is  not  qualified ;  but  the  qualifications, 

wherever  obtained,  must  be  equal  to  those  of  a  normal 

graduate,  and  there  must  be   as  long  an  experience  in 

teaching  required  as  is  required  of  them.     It  would  soon 

be  recognized  that  the  normal  schools  are  the  best  places 

to  prepare  for  teaching,  but  that  would  not  prevent  other 

schools    from    preparing   teachers,   nor  persons  prepared 

elsewhere  from  entering  the  profession.     What  we  insist 

upon  is  the  necessary  qualifications,    wherever  obtained, 

and  when  the  state  finds  that  they  are  possessed,  recogni- 


Appointment  and  Support  of  Teachers  in  America.  191 

tion  shall  be  given  by  fixed  appointments.  In  this  the 
state  does  not  trespass  upon  the  local  rights.  The  state 
specifies  the  qualifications  of  teachers,  as  now,  only  the 
standard  is  made  higher,  and  the  local  board  chooses  from 
the  liumber  of  the  state's  qualified  candidates  and  gives 
them  permanent  positions. 

The  advantage  that  normal  graduates  have  in  securing 
positions,  the  permanency  of  their  positions,  their  freedom 
from  further  examination  after  being  fully  inducted  into 
oflRce,  would  lead  many  more  to  enter  upon  this  course,  and 
the  time  would  not  be  very  far  distant  when  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  teachers  would  have  completed  a  normal 
course.  This  would  give  a  proper  recognition  of  the  nor- 
mal school  as  a  state  institution  for  the  preparation  of  the 
teachers  of  the  state. 

The  plan  thus  outlined  would  professionalize  teaching 
in  America  in  a  sense  by  far  not  yet  attained.  In  a  few 
years  the  standard  of  jreneral  qualifications  of  teachers 
would  be  immeasurably  elevated,  and  the  advantages 
gained  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows : 

1.  It  would  give  a  mighty  incentive  to  teachers  every- 
where to  fit  themselves  to  be  entitled  to  permanent  posi- 
tions. 2.  It  would  be  a  most  effective  check  Advanu^es 
upon  politicians  who  appoint  their  favorites  gained, 
without  regard  to  fitness,  the  state  having  fixed  a  standard 
which  no  local  board  would  have  the  right  to  lower.  3.  It 
would  lessen  the  number  of  changes  made,  thereby  giving 
our  schools  a  more  stable  character,  and  making  the  ap- 
pointments to  be  made  fewer  from  year  to  year.  4.  It 
would  not  prevent  a  teacher,  upon  due  notice,  from  better- 
ing his  condition,  if  opportunity  offered,  by  change  to  an- 
other place.  5.  It  would  lead  more  men  to  enter  the  field 
of  teaching,  because  it  would  secure  them  permanent  em- 
ployment, and  therefore  make  the  establishment  of  a  home 
possible.     It  is  the  insecurity  of  the  position  that  leads  a 


192  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

man  to  hesitate  to  enter  upon  the  life  of  a  teacher  in  America 
more  than  the  smallness  of  the  salary.  No  man  likes  to 
feel  that  he  may  be  buffeted  about  by  the  whims  of  poli- 
ticians, without  regard  to  his  fitness,  his  success,  or  his 
efficiency;  and  no  true  man  likes  to  be  compelled  to  crawl 
at  the  feet  of  such  men  in  order  to  be  retained  in  position. 
Therefore,  a  man  who  expects  to  assume  the  responsibilities 
of  a  family  will  think  twice  before  entering  the  profession 
of  teaching.  Give  us  permanence  in  office,  and  it  will 
Heed  of  more  ^q^  y^Q  j^j^g  ^j^^t  Chicago  and  Philadelphia  will 
e„.  have  but  four  per  cent  of  male  teachers,  and 

New  York,  Brooklyn,  Boston,  and  most  other  great  cities 
less  than  ten  per  cent !  This  is  no  disparagement  of  the 
work  of  female  teachers.  They  are  admirably  fitted  to 
this  work,  and  will  ever  remain  in  the  teaching  force  of 
America  largely  in  the  majority.  But  it  is  a  plea  for  more 
men-teachers  for  the  sake  of  the  proper  education  of  our  boys 
and  girls.  There  is  something  in  the  character  of  a  man 
that  impresses  the  child,  especially  the  boy,  as  no  woman 
can  do.  The  manhood  of  a  man  appeals  to  the  boy  and 
furnishes  him  an  example  to  emulate,  a  character  which  he 
will  try  to  copy.  Therefore  no  boy  should  complete  his 
school  course  without  having  been  instructed  by  a  male 
teacher.  An  increase  in  the  number  of  male  teachers  would 
therefore  be  a  great  blessing  to  the  American  schools.  6. 
It  would  raise  the  salaries  of  female  teachers,  because  it 
would  exclude  illy-prepared  women  who  can  afford  to  work 
cheaper  than  those  more  well-prepared.  The  effect  would 
be  to  bring  the  salaries  of  women  to  nearly  the 
inthel^er-  same  point  as  those  of  men,  the  same  as  it  has 
lean  school  done  in  Germany  (see  p.  178).  7.  Finally, 
system.  permanency  of  teachers'  positions  would  in  time 

allow  the  state  to  estimate  the  number  of  new  teachers 
needed  each  year,  thus  enabling  it  to  prepare  the  requisite 
number  with  comparative  certainty.     This  is  everywhere 


Appointment  and  Support  of  Teachers  in  America.  193 

recognized  as  the  weakest  point  in  our  school  system,  and  it 
would  be  found  that  all  of  these  questions  would  find  their 
solution  from  this  central  idea.  Make  the  teacher's  position 
secure  as  fast  as  trained  teachers  appear,  and  more  teachers 
will  seek  better  training,  until  in  a  few  years  we  shall  have 
a  professionally  trained  corps  of  teachers. 

In  conclusion,  the  question  of  salaries  is  of  paramount 
interest.     The  amount  of  salary  must  be  left  to  the  local 
board.     But  the  state  should  fix  the  minimum  i;,ocai board 
of  salary  which  may  be  paid  a  fully  qualified  to  fix  saia- 
teacher,  as  above  specified.     Aside  from  this,  '***' 
and  wholly  independent  from  it,  there  should  be  granted 
from  the  state  to  each  teacher  direct  a  sum  of  money,  say 
1100  a  year,  for  each  teacher  of  ten  years'  active  experi- 
ence, during  each  year  of  teaching.     This  should  increase 
with  the  years  of  experience;  thus,  1200  after  15  years, 
1300  after  20  years,  $400  after  25  years,  and  1500  after  30 
years,  etc. ,  until  the  teacher  is  60  years  of  age,   -^^^^^  gtate 
when  he  may  be  retired.     The  higher  grade  annuity  for 
teachers     (principals,     superintendents,     etc.)   experienced 
should  have  double  these  amounts.     If  these 
amounts  are  too  high,  so  as  to  cost  the  state  too  much, 
one  half  the  amounts  could  be   taken.      The  principle 
would  be  the  same — that  is,  encouragement  to  the  teacher 
to  remain  in  service,  and  payment  of  an  increasing  annuity 
by  the  state,  regardless  of  the  kind  of  position  held  or  the 
salary  from  the  local  authorities.     This  would  not  only  be 
wisdom  on  the  part  of  the  state,  but  an  act  of  simple  jus- 
tice to  her  faithful,  experienced,  and  self-denying  servants. 
It  would  be  an  additional  incentive  to  broad  preparation, 
and  would  invite  the  best  talent  into  this  field  of  useful- 
ness, and  would  be  a  recognition  of  the  value  of  experience. 

It  need  not  be  a  burden  to  the  state,  but,  in  part  at 
least,  the  simple  changing  of  the  state  school  funds  into  a 
new  channel.     Such  disposition  of  these  funds  would  be 


194  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

an  inestimable  blessing,  not  alone  to  the  teachers,  but 
through  them  to  the  children  whom  they  instruct  and  the 
cause  of  education  in  general. 

Comenius  says  the  teacher  should  be  the  sun  of  the  school. 
This  means  not  alone  that  he  sheds  brightness  and  light 
upon  the  hearts  and  minds  of  his  pupils,  but  it  carries 
with  it  the  necessity  of  his  first  possessing  the 
the  ughfS  ^^^^*  himself.  Not  alone  the  light  which  brings 
the  school,  gladness  and  shows  itself  by  his  temperament, 
but  the  light  of  knowledge  well  in  hand,  sys- 
tematized, and  with  the  power  to  give  it  out  again.  To 
give  him  this  light  is  the  object  of  the  normal  school,  and 
the  possession  of  it,  with  the  power  to  disseminate  the  same 
is  what  the  state  has  a  right  to  expect  of  all  of  its  teachers. 
The  teacher  is  the  light  of  the  school,  because  he  has  "the 
light  in  himself  and  knows  how  to  let  that  light  shine. 


Pensions,  195 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

PENSIONS. 

It  is  the  practice  in  all  departments  of  official  service  in 
Prussia  for  the  government  to  pay  a  pension  to  its  servants 
upon  their  retiring  on  account  of  disability  or  old  age.  As 
the  teacher  is  recognized  as  an  official  of  the  state,  no  ex- 
ception is  made  in  his  case.  It  is  urged  that  the  teacher 
is  deserving  of  a  pension  for  the  following  reasons:  1.  He 
has  served  the  community  at  a  salary  which  was  so  small 
as  to  preclude  the  idea  of  laying  up  anything  against  old 
age  or  sickness.  2.  He  must  spend  a  long  time  Reasons  for 
in  preparation,  and  cannot  begin  to  earn  his  live-  teachers, 
lihood  until  at  a  later  period  than  business-men  and  men 
in  many  other  callings  do.  3.  He  must  devote  himself 
entirely  to  his  calling,  cannot  engage  in  any  other  busi- 
ness, nor  can  he  delegate  his  work  to  some  one  else,  as  can 
be  done  in  other  callings.  4,  His  calling  never  leads  to 
possessions,  or  to  the  acquirement  of  property,  as  in  the  case 
of  merchants,  farmers,  and  others  whose  business  or  pro- 
fession grows  more  valuable  with  the  years.  Therefore  he 
and  his  family  have  nothing  to  look  forward  to  as  an  out- 
come of  his  calling.  5.  His  income  under  the  most  favor- 
able circumstances  will  always  be  far  less  than  that  of 
other  callings  which  he  might  have  entered,  and  which 
would  have  required  less  strength,  preparation,  and  ability. 
6.  His  office  of  teacher  often  excludes  him  from  oppor- 
tunities of  gain  which  others  may  accept. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  salaries  of  teachers  in 
Prussia  are  so  small  that  barely  the  necessities  of  life  can 


IM  School  Systems  of  Germany^ 

be  afforded,  and  that  to  secure  even  these,  private  teach- 
ing, writing,  etc.,  must  be  resorted  to  in  many  cases.  To 
save  anything  from  the  salary  is  an  absohite  impossibility ; 
therefore  the  provision  of  a  pension  is  the  only  hope  for 
future  maintenance  that  a  large  majority  of  the  German 
teachers  have. 

The  law  in  Prussia  is  as  follows :  Every  public-school 
teacher  who  has  taught  at  least  ten  years  is  entitled  to  a 
pension  of  one  fourth  of  his  salary  at  the  time  he  ceases 
to  teach,  provided  he  is  obliged  to  give  up  teaching  on 
account  of  physical  or  mental  disability,  or  if  he  has  reached 
the  age  of  sixty-five.  The  time  of  service  is  reckoned 
from  the  date  of  entering  service  as  provisional  teacher 
after  completing  the  seminary  course.     Sei*vice  in  other 

Pensions  in  German  states  is  also  recognized  by  mutual  con- 
all German  ,  n     »  ,,       ,    ,         . /i      -r,       •  m-i 

states.  sent  among  all  of  the  states  of  the  Empire.     The 

value  of  the  perquisites,  such  as  free  rent,  fire,  light,  in- 
come from  school  lands,  etc.,  is  taken  into  account  in  de- 
termining the  amount  of  pension.  Commencing  with 
one  quarter  of  his  salary  after  ten  years'  service,  the 
amount  of  pension  increases  by  one  sixtieth  each  year  until 
it  amounts  to  three  quarters  of  the  salary,  which  is  the 
maximum.  Thus  after  ten  years'  service  the  pension  is 
one  quarter,  or  fifteen  sixtieths  of  the  salary ;  add  to  this 
one  sixtieth  each  year  for  30  years,  and  the  maximum,  or 
forty-five  sixtieths,  is  reached.  Suppose  a  young  man 
completes  his  seminary  course  at  21  and  enters  upon  work 
as  a  provisional  teacher.  He  becomes  immediately  a  can- 
didate for  pension ;  that  is,  when  his  first  10  years  of  service 
are  completed.*  After  10  years. of  teaching  he  is  entitled 
to  one  quarter  of  his  salary  if  obliged  to  retire  on  pension. 
After  30  years  more,  or  40  years  in  all,  he  would  receive 

*  Until  within  the  last  few  years  the  time  of  provisional  teachers 
was  not  reckoned,  the  pension  service  counting  only  from  the  time 
of  taking  the  oath  of  ofiBce, 


Pensions.  197 

the  maximum  pension  allowed.  He  would  thus  be  61 
years  of  age,  and  would  have  the  right  to  retire  on  a  pen- 
sion of  three  quarters  of  his  salary  at  the  age  of  65.  In 
the  meantime  his  salary  has  been  steadily  increasing,  >»s 
well  as  the  pension  allowance,  so  that  a  double  incentive  is 
offered  the  teacher  to  continue  in  service. 

To  illustrate,  take  the  case  of  a  Berlin  common-school 
teacher.     After  10  years'  service  he  would  draw  a  salary 
of  1900  marks.     Should  he  be  compelled  to  give  mnstration 
up  teaching  on  account  of  permanent  physical  of  the  pen- 
or  mental  disability,  he  would  be  entitled  to  »*°''^»'«"- 
one  quarter  of  his  salary  as  pension,  or  475  marks.     Should 
he,   however,    teach  until   the   maximum   of    pension  is 
reached,  his  salary  would  then  be  3800  marks,  and  his 
J)ension  would  be  three  quarters  of  that,  or  2850  marks. 

Although  teachers  may  retire  at  65  on  pension  if  they 
choose  to  do  so,  it  is  very  seldom  that  they  do  so  if  still  in 
good  health.  It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  to  find  men  above 
70  still  performing  their  daily  tasks  in  the  schoolroom 
with  enthusiasm,  zeal,  and  success.  Indeed,  oid  teachers 
they  prefer  to  be  employed  in  that  work,  which  continue  in 
has  become  second  nature  to  them,  and  in  which  °  ^' 
they  find  their  greatest  joy  and  satisfaction,  rather  than 
retire  to  lives  of  idleness. 

Besides,  if  they  continue  active  they  draw  full  salaries 
instead  of  three  fourths.  Even  in  some  of  the  German 
states  where  a  more  liberal  pension  is  given,  amounting 
sometimes  to  the  full  salary,  we  have  known  old  teachers 
to  go  on  with  their  school- work  because  they  loved  it,  and 
because  the  schoolroom  was  their  home  and  teaching  their 
element. 

Pensions  are  paid  monthly  beforehand.     They  cease  at 
the  death  of  the  pensioner,  excepting  in  case  pensionf 
of  his  leaving  a  widow  or  orphans,  when  the  cease  at  death 
pension  is  paid  for  one  month  after  his  death.     «'pen»ioner' 


198  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

The  manner  of  raising  the  funds  for  pensions  is  as  fol- 
lows :  the  state  pays  out  of  its  treasury  600  marks  towards 
meeting  the  required  amount  in  each  case,  that  is,  when 
the  pension  amounts  to  that  sum.  The  balance  must  be 
provided  for  by  the  community  which  the  teacher  has 
served,  and  by  a  deduction  from  the  salary  of  his  successor. 
Manner  of  The  number  of  pensioners  in  1891  was  6091,  to 
raising  tiie  whom  5,969,185  marks  were  paid,  averaging  980 
pen  ODs.  marks  to  each  pensioner.  This  fund  was  raised 
as  follows : 

The  state  contributed 58^^  per  cent. 

The  community 35^      " 

From  salary  of  successor 5-j^      " 

To  an  American  who  is  accustomed  to  frequent  changes 
of  teachers  a  diflBculty  will  appear,  which,  however,  does 
not  occur  in  Germany,  as  teachers  generally  serve  one 
community  a  great  many  years,  and  often  their  whole  life- 
time, so  that  they  are  very  closely  connected  with  all  of 
the  interests  of  the  community  and,  therefore,  they  are 
gladly  cared  for  during  the  last  few  years  of  their  lives, 
when  no  longer  able  to  teach.  It  does  not  last  long  be- 
cause, as  we  have  seen,  the  most  of  them  con- 
noraborden.  ^i^^^  ^^  their  loved  post  of  duty  as  long  as 
they  are  able  to  do  so,  faithful  servants  of  the 
community  to  the  last.  Then,  too,  the  part  that  the 
state  contributes,  very  largely  pays  the  pension  in  small 
communities  where  this  added  tax  would  be  a  burden., 
while  in  larger  and  wealthier  communities,  where  salaries 
are  better,  and  consequently  pensions  higher,  the  ability  to 
pay  is  more  than  correspondingly  great.  Besides  the 
above  allowance  from  the  state  treasury,  further  assistance 
is  rendered  in  special  instances  where  the  community  is 
unable  to  meet  this  demand,  or  when  extraordinary  cir- 
cumstances make  the  pension  requirements  large. 

From  1886  to  1889,  3449  teachers  were  retired  on  pen- 


Pensions.  199 

sion.  This  became  possible  by  means  of  the  pension  law 
of  1885,  which  allows  teachers  to  retire  at  65.  peMion  uw 
Thus  many  old  men  who  had  become  feeble  were  •'  "'*• 
retired  and  their  places  readily  filled  by  young  teachers 
from  the  normal  schools.  Many  men  had  been  retained 
longer  than  was  desirable  because  of  the  previous  lack  of 
trained  teachers  to  supply  their  places.  Another  good 
result  was  the  increased  number  of  positions.  Many  of 
the  old  teachers  preferred  to  conduct  the  school  alone 
with  100  children  or  even  more  rather  than  have  an  assist- 
ant, and  the  communities  were  disposed  to  humor  them. 
When  a  change  was  made  two  teachers  were  generally 
installed.  Thus  the  number  of  teachers  increased  from 
52,046  in  1873  to  71,731  in  1891,  an  increase  of  38  per 
cent,  while  the  increase  in  population  for  the  same  time 
was  only  21  per  cent.  The  pension  law  is  therefore  benefi- 
cent to  the  teachers  during  their  lives,  and  also  is  a  bless- 
ing to  the  schools. 

As  this  pension  continues  only  during  the  life  of  the 
teacher,  provision  for  his  family  is  made  in  the  Widows' 
and  Orphans'  Fund,  which  is  also  under  government  con- 
trol. All  teachers  are  required  to  contribute  to  pensions  for 
this  fund,  whether  married  or  not.  The  amount  widows  and 
contributed  depends  chiefly  upon  the  amount  *'^''^"""* 
of  salary.  The  various  provincial  districts  are  allowed  to 
levy  a  yearly  sum  upon  each  teacher  not  to  exceed  fifteen 
marks,  according  to  the  needs  of  the  fund.  Each  indi- 
vidual case  is  taken  into  account.  For  example,  should 
a  teacher  late  in  life  contract  a  marriage  with  a  young 
woman  who  probably  as  widow  would  have  a  claim  upon 
the  fund  for  many  years,  he  would  be  required  to  pay  more 
than  under  other  circumstances.  Each  widow  is  entitled 
to  250  marks  a  year  as  long  as  she  lives,  and  should  she 
die  leaving  children,  this  pension  goes  to  them  until  they 
are  sixteen  years  of  age.  The  state  assists  in  making  up 
this  amount  in  districts  where  the  funds  are  insufEicient. 


200  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

CHAPTER  XXX. 

PENSIONS   FOR  AMERICAN   TEACHERS. 

It  is  obvious  that  pensions  according  to  the  German 
method  would  not  answer  for  present  conditions  in  Amer- 
ica. The  insecurity  of  the  teacher's  position  and  fre- 
A  nucation  ^^^^^  changes  connected  therewith,  the  lack  of 
of  pensions  any  systematic  scale  of  salaries,  and  the  com- 
to  America,  paratively  sufficient  salaries  paid  are  factors  that 
do  not  arise  in  Prussia.  Instead  of  engaging  in  a  work  and 
carrying  it  out  for  a  lifetime,  or  until  called  to  a  better 
position,  as  is  the  case  with  the  German  teacher,  the  Ameri- 
can teacher  is  reappointed  from  year  to  year,  when  no  ad- 
verse political  or  other  influence  prevents,  but  never  has 
any  security  whatever  of  holding  his  place,  however  faith- 
ful, efficient,  or  successful  he  may  be.  Consequently  the 
average  length  of  the  teacher's  service  with  us  is  only  about 
five  years,  instead  of  twenty-five  as  in  Prussia.  There  can 
never  be  a  thoroughly  successful  school  system  in  America 
until  this  is  corrected. 

Then,  too,  the  need  of  pensions  for  American  teachers 
is  certainly  not  so  great  as  is  the  need  for  German  teachers. 
The  salaries  paid  in  America,  while  by  no  means  what 
they  should  be,  certainly  in  most  cases  admit  of  a  comfort- 
able living  and  do  not  exclude  the  idea  of  savmg  some- 
thing against  the  time  of  need.  So  there  is  not 
Heed  of  pen-     .i  j       «  •  •  i 

sionsnotso     *^®  ^^^^  ^^  pensions  m  any  such  sense  as  in 

great  with     Germany.      Another  fact  must  be  taken  into 
^''  account  in  the  discussion  of  this  question.     Prus- 

sia pensions  not  only  her  military  but  also  her  civil  officials 
on  a  plan  similar  to  that  of  the  teachers.     All  railway-  and 


Pensions  for  American  Teachers.  201 

telegraph-employes  on  the  lines  belonging  to  the  state,  all 
secretaries  and  government  clerks,  all  post  officials,  of  what- 
ever kind,  are  entitled  to  pensions.  With  us  pensions  are 
chiefly  limited  to  the  army  and  navy,  therefore  the  subject 
of  pensions  is  regarded  quite  differently  in  the  two  coun- 
tries. But  the  same  reasons  exist  for  pensioning  these 
other  classes  in  Prussia  that  exist  for  pensioning  teachers, 
though  not  in  the  same  degree,  for  the  teachers  are  poorest 
paid  of  all  state  officers.  And  that  reason  does  not  exist 
in  American  civil  relations,  nor  are  civil  officers  continued 
long  enough  in  service  to  warrant  a  pension. 

But  in  spite  of  these  different  conditions  it  is  certain 
that  pensions  for  teachers  is  but  just  to  them,  and  would 
work  great  good  for  the  schools.  The  recent  syupejui^ng 
movements  in  various  cities  and  states  show  that  needed  in 
the  subject  is  securing  attention,  and  doubtless  a  ^^e^ic*' 
solution  will  be  found.  It  will  not  pauperize  the  teacher 
any  more  than  it  pauperizes  the  soldier  in  America,  or  the 
teacher  in  Germany.  When  teachers  are  recognized  as 
state  officers,  and  given  permanent  positions,  as  we  have 
elsewhere  demanded,  the  greatest  difficulty,  that  of  adjust- 
ment, will  be  removed.  When  teachers  have  met  the  re- 
quirements of  the  state  and  are  admitted  to  the  rank  of 
permanent  teacher,  a  pension  could  be  granted  them  de- 
pendent upon  the  length  of  service,  whether  it  be  in  one 
school  or  several.  As  in  the  army  there  are  different 
grades  of  pensions  for  officers  of  various  grades,  and  for 
privates,  so  in  the  teaching  profession  there  should  be  dif- 
ferent pensions  for  different  ranks  of  teachers. 

We  have  required  elsewhere  that  there  shall   be  two 
grades  of  teachers,  those  having  completed  the  ordinary  nor- 
mal school  course  or  its  equivalent,  compris-  xwo  grades 
ing  the  great  mass  of  common-school  teachers,  of  permanent 
and  those  having  completed  the  higher  normal  *"*^  *"' 
school  course  or  its  equivalent,  comprising  the  high-school 


203  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

teachers,  the  principals,  superintendents,  etc.  (See  page 
181.)  When  these  conditions  are  reached,  a  scheme  for 
distribution  of  pensions  will  be  simple.  It  is  not  the 
design  to  work  out  the  details  of  the  scheme  here,  but  it 
should  be  based  on  the  following  principles : 

1.  The  common-school  teacher  should  be  entitled  to 
Principles  the  minimum  pension  after  10  years'  service, 
pension  ones-  reckoning  from  the  time  of  entrance  into  the 
tion.  rank  of  permanent  teacher,  without  regard  to 
the  salary  received,  and  this  should  increase  from  year  to 
year 

2.  The  teacher  of  the  advanced  grade  should  be  entitled 
to  a  larger  pension  than  the  above  under  the  same  condi- 
tions, his  time  to  count  from  the  time  of  his  entering 
service  after  obtaining  the  advanced  certificate,  regardless 
of  whether  that  service  be  in  the  common  school  or  in 
higher  work.  This  would  be  a  proper  recognition  of  those 
who  have  taken  the  advanced  preparation  and  have  not 
been  able  to  secure  work  in  the  higher  schools. 

3.  Principals,  superintendents,  and  other  school  officials, 
upon  whom  greater  responsibility  rests,  should  be  entitled 
to  the  pension  of  the  high-school  teacher  from  the  time  of 
acquiring  that  rank,  under  the  same  conditions  as  No.  1, 
and  an  additional  sum  beginning  with  the  time  of  their 
induction  into  the  higher  office.  This  also  should  increase 
with  the  years  of  service,  and  might  again  be  graded  as 
follows:  1.  Principals.  2.  Superintendents  in  cities  under 
10,000  inhabitants.  3.  Superintendents  in  cities  from 
10,000-100,000.  4,  Superintendents  in  cities  of  over 
100,000.  Provision  should  also  be  made  for  assistant-su- 
perintendents, district  school-inspectors,  etc. 

4.  The  pension  of  female  teachers  should  be  two  thirds 
of  that  of  male  teachers  of  corresponding  rank.  This 
difference  is  necessary  because  upon  the  man  devolves  the 
responsibility  of  providing  for  a  family. 


Pensions  for  American  Teachers,  203 

5.  The  teacher  should  have  the  right  to  retire  at  the 
age  of  GO  as  pensioner.  If  he  withdraw  before  that 
time  for  any  other  cause  than  physical  or  mental  disabil- 
ity, all  right  to  pension  should  cease. 

6.  Pensions  should  be  assumed  and  paid  by  the  state. 
No  other  plan  could  be  devised  which  would  satisfactorily 
meet  the  present  conditions  and  those  that  are  likely  to 
exist  for  some  time  to  come. 

If  left  to  the  community,  no  teacher  well  along  in  years 
could  obtain  a  position,   as  every  community  would  be 
bound  to  avoid  saddling  themselves  with  those  who  would 
soon  become  pensioners.     Thus  the  service  of 
the  ripest  and  best  years  of  a  man's  life  would   assume  re- 
be  lost  to  the  state.     Then,  too,  with  so  many  sponsibiiity 
changes  of  teachers,   it  would  be  difficult   to  *'p*'"^'""- 
decide  to  what  community  the  burden  of  a  pension  be- 
longs, or  what  part  of  such  burden.     Again,  it  would  be 
a  constant  source  of  friction  between  teacher  and  people. 
The  state  alone,  therefore,  can  best  assume  this  responsi- 
bility, and  it  is  proper  that  it  should  do  this,  as  the  teachers 
are  its  servants. 

This  plan  marks  out  an  ideal  for  the  future,  and  is  based 
upon  the  preceding  reforms  proposed.     Until  these  reforms 
are  inaugurated,  what  is  to  be  done  with  those  now  in 
service  who  have  given  their  lives  to  the  state 
and  to  the  training  of  the  youth?     These  faith-  ^  doii"witii 
ful  men  and  women  must  be  recognized,  and  present 
some  compensation  rendered  for  their  years  of  ^**<=^^"' 
faithfulness  and  efficiency  without  adequate  pay.      The 
same  general  principles  above  indicated  could  be  applied, 
the  chief  difference  being  in  the  grades  of  teachers.     This, 
however,  could  be  adjusted  so  that  teachers  of  lowest  grades 
should  receive  the  minimum  pension,  which  would  be  in- 
creased with  the  years  of  service.      Perhaps  no  pension 
should  be  given  unless  the  teacher  has  been  at  least  twenty 


204  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

years  active,  and  the  amount  would  necessarily  be  less  than 
in  the  above  case,  where  broader  preparation  is  demanded. 

In  so  far  as  teachers  have  now  met  the  requirements 
marked  out  as  the  ideal  to  be  sought  in  the  state,  they 
should  be  entitled  to  a  pension  under  that  plan,  and  this 
should  be  continued  until  gradually  all  teachers  will  be- 
come entitled  to  such  participation. 

Let  us  look  at  some  of  the  results  that  might  be  expected 
from  the  adoption  of  pensions  for  the  American  teachers 
based  upon  some  such  plan  as  has  been  outlined. 

1.  It  would  encourage  men  and  women  to  enter  teaching 
and  devote  their  whole  lives  to  it,  thereby  increasing  the 
number  of  teachers  of  experience  and  maturity. 

2.  It  would  give  a  permanency  to  the  calling  of  teaching 
now  sadly  lacking,  in  that  it  would  offer  an  added  incen- 
tive to  those  who  have  begun  to  continue  in  the  work. 
Benefits  to  3.  It  would  give  assurance  which  would  re- 
come  from  move  anxiety  concerning  the  future,  and  thereby 
pensions.  enable  all  the  powers  of  mind  and  body  to  be 
devoted  to  the  schoolroom  and  to  the  interests  of  the  pupils. 

4.  It  would  recognize  the  teachers  as  state  officers, 
thereby  adding  to  their  influence  in  the  community. 

5.  It  would  tend  to  systematize  educational  interests, 
and  thus  add  to  their  efficiency  and  success. 

6.  It  would  necessitate  the  fixing  of  a  definite  standard 
of  fitness  for  those  who  are  to  have  the  benefit  of  pensions, 
as  the  state  would  necessarily  require  a  return  for  its  in- 
vestment; this  could  be  assured  only  by  high  require- 
ments of  preparation  and  pedagogical  fitness. 

It  may  be  urged  that  pensioning  teachers  savors  too 
much  of  paternalism,  and  that  the  teacher  should  be  paid 
a  salary  sufficient  for  his  present  wants  and  to  enable  him 
to  save  for  the  future.  The  teacher,  like  the  pastor,  must 
devote  his  life  for  the  good  of  his  fellow-beings,  and  there- 
fore he  is  withdrawn  from  many  active  phases  of  life  which 


Pensions  for  American  Teachers.  205 

would  enable  him  to  make  and  save  money ;  he  does  not  ac- 
quire business  habits,  nor  does  he  have  business  ^j^^  teacher 
opportunities  that  otlier  men  do.     It  seems  that  uke  tiie 
this  must  always  be  so  if  the  teacher,  like  the  p*"^*""* 
pastor,  is  to  be  of  greatest  use  to  the  community.     Therefore 
let  the  state,  which  the  teacher  serves,  do  for  him  what 
the  Church,  which  the  pastor  serves,  does  for  him.     All 
Churches  have  funds  for  the  help  of  their  old  pastors  who 
have  given  their  lives  for  her;  let  the  state  do  the  same 
for  the  teachers  who  just  as  truly  have  devoted  their  lives 
for  its  interests. 

Pensions  are  just  to  the  teacher,  and  the  state  should 
recognize  this  obligation,  thereby  assuring  its  servants  in 
their  old  age  from  want,  and  showing  proper  appreciation 
of  a  class  of  men  and  women  who  perhaps  have  done  more 
than  any  other  class  in  the  establishment  of  the  founda- 
tions of  the  state,  which  in  a  republic  are  laid  in  the  in- 
telligence and  morality  of  its  citizens. 


206  School  Systems  of  Germany, 


CHAPTER  XXXL 

OTHER  KINDS  OF  SCHOOLS. 

We  have  now  completed  the  discussion  of  the  common 
schools  of  Prussia,  but  as  these  do  not  instruct  all  of  the 
children,  and  as  the  state  has  oversight  of  all  schools,  it 
remains  for  us  to  study  such  other  schools  as  belong  to 
the  common-school  system.  These  are  the  middle  schools, 
the  practice-schools,  the  private  schools,  and  the  higher 
schools  for  girls. 

While  the  state  fixes  the  minimum  of  required  school 

Parents  free    attendance,  and  of  the  course  of  study  to  which 

to  choose  kind  schools  of  all  kinds  must  conform,  it  leaves  all 

0  sc  00  .       parents  free  as  to  choice  of  school.     There  have 

been  for  many  years  schools  for  the  middle  classes,  which 

were  called  "  Rektorats,"  "  Burger,"    "  Stadt"   schools, 

etc.     These  are  all  now  classified  under  the  term  "  Mittel " 

schools.     They  are  designed  for  such  children  as  are  to 

have  a  wider  training  than  that  of  the  common  school,  and 

prepare  for  entrance  to  lower  classes  of  the  high  schools. 

The  course  of  study  is  more  extended,  and  tuition  is  also 

Minister        charged.     In  1872  Minister  Falk  issued  the  fol- 

Falk's  clr~ 

coiar.  lowing  regulations  concerning  these  schools: 

1.  Middle  schools  may  be  established  in  communities 
where  common  schools  exist,  but  they  must  have  at  least 
5  classes,  each  having  a  maximum  of  50  pupils. 

2.  The  course  of  study  is  to  be  similar  to  that  of  the 
common  school,  but  the  work  of  the  first  three  years  of 
the  latter  is  to  be  done  in  two  years  in  the  former,  thus 
enabling  at  least  one  year  to  be  gained  in  the  middle  school 


other  Kinds  of  Schools.  207 

and  the  course  in  the  same  to  be  extended.  Especial  at- 
tention in  the  course  may  be  given  to  such  subjects  as 
local  conditions  make  desirable.  One  modem  language 
may  be  given  in  addition  to  the  mother  tongue. 

3.  The  apparatus  and  appliances  for  teaching  must  be 
in  accord  with  the  needs  of  the  school.  There  must  also 
be  a  library  containing  such  books  as  are  needed  by  the 
teachers  in  their  instruction. 

4.  Only  such  teachers  as  have  passed  the  examination 
required  by  the  state  for  these  schools  may  be  employed. 

5.  The  common  schools  must  not  be  neglected  because 
of  the  existence  of  the  middle  schools  in  a  community. 

The  course  usually  extends  to  the  sixteenth  instead  of 
the  fourteenth  year  of  age.  In  some  communities  boys 
attend  the  middle  school  a  few  years  as  a  preparation  for 
the  Oymnasium  or  Real  school,  which  they  enter  when 
nine  years  of  age.  The  object  of  the  course  is  not  to  fit 
for  professional  life,  as  pupils  who  have  taken  D^notfltj^ 
the  full  middle  school  course  have  no  admission  professional 
to  the  high  schools  ( Oymnasium^  Real  school,  ^'* 
etc.),  but  to  fit  for  mercantile  life  or  other  non-professional 
callings  higher  than  common  laborers.  The  instruction  is 
better  than  in  the  common  school,  the  classes  are  smaller, 
the  appliances  better,  and,  because  of  the  tuition  charged, 
the  schools  have  something  of  an  exclusive  character, 
which  suits  the  wishes  of  well-to-do  parents. 

In  1891  there  were  349  public  middle  schools  attended 

by  both  sexes.     Where  possible  the  sexes  are  separated,  but 

in  small  cities  that  could  not  support  a  school  for   ■"'«  ■***• 

educated 
each  sex  the  boys  and  girls  are  taught  together,   separately. 

In  these  schools  86,335  children  were  taught,  being  less 

than  two  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  children  of  school 

age.     About  four  times  as  many  boys  attend  the  special 

preparatory  schools  for  the  Gymnasium  and  the  Real  school 

as  attend  the  middle  school. 


208  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

The  number  of  teachers  employed  in  the  boys'  middle 
schools  in  1891  was: 

Male 1289 

Female 2 

1291 

In  the  girls'  middle  schools: 

Male 526 

Female 384 


910 

In  mixed  middle  schools : 

Male 490 

Female 96 


586 


The  manner  of  supporting  middle  schools  is  chiefly  by 
tuition,  though  in  some  communities  the  pro  rata  part 
Support  of  of  the  common-school  funds  may  be  allowed  the 
schools.  middle  school,  the  balance  being  covered  by 

tuition  fees.  These  fees  vary  from  12  to  180  marks  a 
year;  indeed  in  one  case  the  tuition  is  252  marks  a  year. 
The  state  also  assists  a  little,  and  there  are  also  small  en- 
dowments. There  has  been  a  considerable  falling  off  in 
the  attendance  of  these  schools  in  the  late  years  and  a  cor- 
responding increase  in  the  popularity  of  the  common 
schools.  This  is  an  excellent  sign,  indicating  the  breaking 
down  of  those  class  distinctions  which  are  based  upon  pe- 
cuniary circumstances. 


Other  KUids  of  Schools. 


The  Practice  Schools. 

We  have  seen  that  every  teachers'  seminary  has  a  practice 
school  connected  with  it,  and  in  some  cases  two,  one  of 
which  is  a  mixed  school,  similar  to  that  of  the  small  village, 
and  the  other  is  a  graded  school.  Thus  the  ,j.  ^j^.  - 
young  teachers  have  practice  in  both  kinds  of  Practice 
work.  There  are  166  practice  schools  for  the  schools. 
132  seminaries.  Tlie  design  is  that  these  shall  be  model 
schools,  which  shall  furnish  the  young  teacher  with  an  ex- 
ample for  his  work  when  a  school  shall  be  committed  to 
his  charge. 

These  schools  are  the  central  point  around  which  the 
work  of  the  seminary  revolves.  The  teaching  is  nearly  all 
done  by  the  students  of  the  graduating  class,  each  of  whom 
has  full  charge  of  a  class  from  six  to  ten  weeks  not  less 
than  three  hours  a  day.  In  order  to  prepare  for  genuine 
school  work,  the  classes  average  about  forty  pupils. 

There  are  three  ways  of  obtaining  a  practice  school  for  a 
teachers'  seminary : 

1.  By  an  arrangement  with  the  school  author-  g^^  ^^^^_ 
ities  of  a  place   whereby  a  school   or   certain  tice  schools 
classes  are  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  semi-  "■«•''***"**• 
nary. 

2.  The  state  may  found  a  special  practice  school  and 
charge  tuition, 

3.  The  state  may  found  free  practice  schools. 

In  most  cases  the  first  method  is  employed,  the  other 
methods  being  resorted  to  only  when  no  practice  school  is 
furnished  by  the  community.  Each  parent  is  free  to 
choose  whether  or  not  his  children  shall  attend  such  a 
school.  The  instruction,  being  under  the  P»*cti«« 
charge  of  the  seminary  faculty,  especially  of  popular, 
the  practice   teacher,  is  fully  up  to  the  average  of  the 


210  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

common  schools,  so  that  parents  gladly  avail  themselves  of 
the  opportunity  to  place  their  children  in  these  schools. 

Private  Schools. 

All  private  schools  must  conform  to  state  regulations, 
and  as  the  state  insists  upon  a  standard  of  educational  re- 
quirements wherever  obtained,  it  asserts  the  right  to  in- 
spect the  private  schools  in  order  to  see  that  these  require- 
ments are  met. 

In  1850  it  was  announced  ''that  any  person  who  has 

satisfied  the  state  authorities  of  his  moral,  educational,  and 

technical  fitness  for  the  same  is  free  to  teach  or  to  establish 

■nrv^-.-  and  conduct  a  school."  At  the  same  time  it 
Wiio  may 

fonndapri-  was  asserted  "  that  all  public^and  private  msti- 
vate  school,  tutions  of  learning  are  under  the  control  of 
school  boards  approved  by  the  state."  Teachers  must 
meet  the  same  requirements  as  common-school  teachers, 
and  must  also  be  licensed  by  the  state.  In  fact,  better 
qualified  teachers  are  demanded  for  the  private  schools,  not 
by  the  state,  but  by  the  directors  of  these  schools,  in  order 
to  draw  patronage.  The  course  of  study  must  cover  the 
minimum  of  state  requirements,  but  it  generally  goes  be- 
yond these. 

Since  the  state  has  done  so  much  for  its  schools  and  made 
them  free,  the  private  schools  have  not  been  able  to  hold  their 
Decrease  in  own.  Thus  we  find  in  1871  that  107,121  chil- 
schoois.  dren  were  taught  in  the  private  schools,  while  20 

years  later,  in  spite  of  an  increase  of  nearly  25  per  cent  in 
population,  the  number  was  only  102,546.  This  is  a  little 
less  than  two  per  cent  of  the  school-children  of  the  kingdom. 
In  Berlin  the  pupils  in  private  schools  dropped  from  21,620 
to  18,585  in  1891,  a  decrease  of  nearly  14  per  cent,  while 
the  increase  of  population  for  the  same  period  was  36  per 
cent.  The  falling  off  is  chiefly  in  cities,  while  in  country 
districts  there  has  been  a  slight  increase. 


other  Kinds  of  Schools.  211 

A  great  advantage  in  these  schools  appears  in  the  fact 
that  while  the  average  number  of  children  in  the  public 
schools  to  a  teacher  is  68  for  all  Prussia,  that  in  j^^ay^jitaecs 
the  private  schools  of  like  grade  is  37,  and  in  ofthepri- 
private  schools  of  a  higher  grade  only  20,  with-  "'^***  school, 
out  taking  into  account  teachers  employed  only  a  part  of 
their  time,  as  is  the  case  with  many  in  private  schools. 

There  now  remain  the  higher  schools  for  girls  to  discuss, 
which  we  will  consider  in  a  special  chapter. 


212  School  Systems  of  Germany, 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

THE   EDUCATION   OF  GIBLS. 

Girls  of  the  common  schools  receive  about  the  same 
education  as  boys,  although,  as  we  have  already  seen,  wher- 
ever possible  in  separate  classes.  The  object  of  this  chap- 
ter is  to  discuss  the  training  of  girls  in  other  than  the 
common  schools.  Corresponding  with  the  middle  schools, 
which,  though  nominally  for  both  sexes,  have  come  to  be 
largely  for  boys,  are  the  higher  schools  for  girls.*  The 
design  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  middle  schools. 
These  schools  have  grown  with  astonishing  rapidity,  espe- 
cially in  the  laSt  few  years.  The  noble  Queen  Louise  seems 
to  have  been  the  originator  of  the  idea,  which  first  had  the 
purpose  of  securing  the  better  education  of  girls  belonging 
Influence  of  to  the  higher  classes.  It  must  be  admitted  that 
Qaeen  Louise.  Germany  has  been  very  slow  to  recognize  the 
need  of  higher  education  for  women,  and  her  secondary  and 
academic  schools,  which  take  such  noble  rank  as  institu- 
tions of  learning,  have  heretofore  thought  only  of  the  male 
sex.  But  a  change  is  gradually  taking  place,  and  better 
schools  are  provided  for  girls  than  ever  before,  though  the 
so-called  girls'  higher  schools  by  no  means  compare  with 
the  Gymnasium  or  Real  school  for  boys. 

In  1873  a  conference  ot  leading  principals  and  teachers 
Conference  of  of  girls'  high  schools  was  called  by  Minister 
1873.  Falk,  and  the  result  of  their  deliberations  may 

be  summed  up  as  follows : 

I.  The  end  to  be  sought  in  higher  schools  for  girls  is  to 

*  IlOliere  TOchtersclnilen. 


The  Education  oj  Girls.  213 

givo  girls  a  suitable  general  culture  corresponding  to  that 
given  boys,  preparing  them  to  enter  into  the  intellectual 
life  of  the  nation,  and  also  to  cultivate  such  talents  as  may 
be  peculiar  to  each.  These  schools  should  also  have  in 
mind  the  fitting  of  girls  for  some  future  calling. 

II.  There  should  be  middle  schools  for  girls  correspond- 
ing to  the  middle  schools  for  boys.  Their  course  should 
be  beyond  that  of  the  common  schools,  and  should  include 
either  the  French  or  the  English  language.  There  should 
also  be  higher  schools  for  girls  to  fit  them  for  the  higher 
walks  of  life.  While  the  number  of  subjects  taught  in  the 
latter  should  not  be  many  more  than  those  of  the  middle 
schools,  they  should  go  deeper  and  more  thoroughly  into 
those  subjects.  Both  English  and  French  should  be  taught 
and  their  literature  studied.  There  should  be  both  kinds 
of  the  above  schools  wherever  they  can  be  maintained. 

III.  As  these  are  under  the  direction  of  the  state,  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  state  to  assist  them  exactly  as  it  assists  the 
Gymnasia  and  the  Real  schools  for  boys.  When,  state  siioiiid 
however,  they  are  private  institutions,  such  help  tBtiBt. 
from  the  state  should  not  be  granted  except  when  they 
follow  the  normal  course  of  study  specified  by  the  state. 

IV.  Pupils  should  be  admitted  at  the  end  of  the  sixth 
year  and  retained  until    the  end  of  the  sixteenth  year. 
There  should  be  three  grades — lower,  middle,  and  upper. 
The  number  of  hours  per  week  should  be  for  the  lower  grade 
22  to  24  hours,  for  the  middle  and  upper  grades  30  hours. 
Gymnastics  and  needlework  should  be  obligatory.     The 
number  of  pupils  in  the  classes  of  the  two  lower  grades 
should  not  exceed  40,  and  in  the  upper  grade  should  be  still 
less.     The  school-work  should  be  nearly  all  done  at  school, 
in  order  to  leave  time  for  the  performance  of  ^jmitg^ 
liome  duties.     At  the  most  one  hour  a  day  of  amount  of 
home-work  for  the  lower  grade,  one  and  a  half  *^°"'  work, 
for  the  middle,  and  two  hours  for  the  upper  grade  should 


214  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

be  required.  The  subjects  taught  should  be  religion,  the 
German  language  as  the  basis  of  all  instruction;  French, 
English,  history,  sciences,  drawing,  singing,  needlework, 
gymnastics,  geography,  arithmetic,  and  natural  history. 

COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

Religion. — A  similar  course  to  that  of  the  boys'  middle 
schools,  with  special  emphasis  upon  ethical  teachings,  as 
well  as  a  more  thorough  study  of  such  questions  as  are  of 
special  value  to  cultured  women. 

German. — ^Ability  of  the  pupil  to  correctly  speak  and 
write  the  native  tongue,  to  give  connected  descriptions  with 
fluency  and  accuracy,  both  oral  and  written ;  knowledge  of 
the  grammar,  acquaintance  with  the  chief  authors  of  Ger- 
man literature  and  their  works,  especially  since  the  time  of 
Luther. 

French. — Knowledge  of  the  grammar,  ability  to  write 
letters  and  simple  compositions  correctly,  and  to  converse 
on  ordinary  topics  with  correct  pronunciation;  ability  to 
read  fluently  and  understand  a  French  book ;  acquaintance 
with  the  principal  classic  French  authors  and  works. 

English. — Course  similar  to  that  in  French. 

History. — Knowledge  of  the  principal  events  of  general 
history,  especially  those  of  Greece  and  Eome;  German  his- 
tory and  that  of  the  neighboring  states  studied  cotempo- 
rarily. 

Geography. — Physical  and  political  geography  of  the  five 
continents;  general  knowledge  of  the  geography  of  Europe 
and  accurate  knowledge  of  that  of  Germany;  the  principal 
facts  of  physical  and  mathematical  geography. 

Arithmetic. — Knowledge  of  necessary  practical  reckon- 
ing, and  of  weights,  measures,  etc. ;  ability  to  solve  prob- 
lems in  whole  numbers,  fractions,  and  decimals  independ- 
ently, accurately,  and  rapidly;  ability  to  solve  arithmetical 
problems  mentally. 


The  Education  of  Girls.  21& 

Kaiurat  History. — The  three  kingdoms  of  matter,  with 
especial  reference  to  types  and  families  found  in  the  local- 
ity; knowledge  of  useful  and  poisonous  plants;  some  ac- 
quaintance with  the  formation  and  structure  of  the  earth. 

Sciences. — General  knowledge  of  the  manifestations  of 
electricity,  magnetism,  light,  heat,  sound,  the  laws  of 
physics,  mechanics,  etc. ;  elements  of  chemistry,  especially 
those  things  that  are  of  use  in  practical  life. 

Draioing. — Freehand  drawing;  use  of  drawing  imple- 
ments; drawing  from  models,  objects,  and  landscapes;  per- 
spective drawing. 

Wriiitig. — A  good,  plain,  free,  and  rapid  handwriting. 

Gymnastics,  Needlework,  and  Singing,  each  to  have  two 
hours  a  week. 

This  was  the  course  suggested  for  the  girls'  schools,  hav- 
ing a  ten  years'  course  commencing  with  the  sixth  and  end- 
ing with  the  sixteenth  year.  The  conference  also  recom- 
mended for  the  middle  girls'  schools  a  course  extending 
from  the  close  of  the  sixth  to  the  close  of  the  fourteenth 
year,  with  five  classes,  the  same  number  of  hours  per  week 
as  above  indicated,  with  less  home-work,  the  course  to  be 
similar  to  that  above,  only  narrower,  and  requiring  but  one 
modern  language. 

V.  The  fifth  general  topic  had  reference  to  the  teach- 
ers. For  directors  only  academically  trained  men  should 
be  chosen.  Women  may  be  chosen  under  certain  condi- 
tions after  having  passed  a  special  examination  for  that 
purpose.  Teachers  of  the  upper  classes  must  have  passed 
the  special  examination  which  entitles  them  to  teach  in  the 
middle  schools  (boys'  or  girls'),  while  teachers  of  the  lower 
classes  must  possess  the  qualifications  necessary  for  the 
common -school  teacher. 

The  year  following  the  conference  the  minister  carried 
into  effect  all  of  the  suggestions  practically,  excepting  No. 
III.,   which  requires  assistance  from  the  state.     As  the 


21G  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

state  has  not  the  means  to  apply  in  this  direction,  the 
minister  recommended  that  the  provinces,  districts,  and 
communities  take  this  burden  voluntarily  upon  themselves, 
which  many  have  done,  as  statistics  which  we  give  later 
show.  The  action  of  the  minister  was  advisory  rather  than 
mandatory,  but  many  of  his  suggestions  have  been  carried 
into  effect.  The  position  of  the  girls'  higher  schools  in 
the  educational  system  of  Prussia  cannot  be  said  to  be  as 
yet  fully  assured,  and  the  recent  (1894)  action  of  the 
government  in  shortening  the  advanced  course  of  the 
girls'  schools  from  ten  to  nine  years  must  be  regarded  as 
a  backward  step,  which  is  to  bo  deplored. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  higher  schools  for  girls — public 
and  private.  The  public  girls'  schools  are  mostly  city  in- 
stitutions. In  many  cases  they  prepare  for  the  teachers' 
seminary.  The  number  of  pupils  in  the  201  high  schools 
for  girls  in  1891  was  44,935.  The  average  cost  for  each 
pupil  was  about  123  marks,  and  the  total  cost  was  5,339,- 
052  marks.     This  expense  is  met  by  the  following  means : 

Tuition  fees 70  per  cent 

Endowments 2  '*     " 

Local  taxes 27  **     " 

State  contributions 1  **      " 


100 

The  tuition  fees  vary  from  24  to  120  marks  a  year.  It 
is  of  interest  to  note  that  the  average  cost  from  public 
funds  to  each  inhabitant  of  Prussia  for  the  various  kinds  of 
schools  is  as  follows : 

For  common  schools 4.89  marks 

"    boys'  high  schools 1.05     " 

**    middle  schools 40     " 

"    girls' high  schools 18     ** 

The  policy  of  the  state,  it  will  thus  be  seen,  is  to  give  a 


The  Education  of  Girls.  217 

common-school  education  to  all  of  its  children  free  of  cost, 
and  we  have  already  seen  that  93  per  cent  of  the  school- 
children of  Prussia  take  advantage  of  this  privi-  Hinety-tiire« 
lege.  But  if  better  advantages  are  desired  in  the  per  cent  of 
way  of  more  exclusive  schools  or  more  advanced  ^^^^  ^  ^^ 
courses,  parents  are  required  to  pay  for  them  by  common 
tuition  fees,  the  community  and  the  state  bear-  "*^®®^' 
ing  a  minor  part  of  the  expense.     The  smaller  part  borne 
by  the  public  enables  these  schools  to  exist  and  prosper, 
while  those  receiving  the  direct  benefit  of  them  must  bear 
the  chief  burden.     America  is  more  liberal  than  Germany 
in  this  respect  in  that  not  only  are  her  common  schools 
free,  but  also  her  high  schools,  while  in  the  latter  country 
tuition  must  be  paid  in  all  higher  schools. 

About  58  per  cent  of  the  teachers  in  the  girls'  high 
schools  are  male,  and  the  principals  are  usually  of  the  same 
sex. 

The  employment  of  better  teachers,  the  smaller  number 
of  pupils  in  a  class,  the  better  schoolrooms  and  school  ap- 
pliances, the  more  extended  course  of  study?  Advantages 
together  with  a  certain  kind  of  exclusiveness,  of  thegiris' 
make  these  schools  to  be  preferred.  Daughters  ^  '^  ^  • 
of  physicians,  officers,  merchants,  and  others  of  the  well- 
to-do  class  generally  attend  them. 

But  these  schools  do  not  by  any  means  furnish  a  train- 
ing equal  to  that  furnished  boys;  accordingly,  during  late 
years  the  question  of  Gymnasia  for  girls  has  been  agitated, 
and  three  have  been  established  within  the  last  four  years 
— the  first  at  Karlsruhe  in  Baden,  the  second  at  Berlin,  and 
the  third  at  Leipsic.  The  course  is  four  years,  correspond- 
ing somewhat  with  the  last  four  years  of  the  Gymna8inm« 
boys'  Oymnasium,  especial  attention  being  'orgiru. 
given  to  the  classics.  Girls  to  enter  must  be  from  16  to  18 
years  of  age,  and  must  be  prepared  to  do  the  work  of  the 
lowest  class.     This  would  mean  a  preparation  somewhat 


218  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

beyond  that  given  in  the  girls'  high  schools  having  the 
nine  years'  course.  Thus  there  are  no  schools  which  prop- 
erly prepare  for  these  girls'  Gymnasia.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  the  boys'  Gymnasia  have  a  continuous  course  of 
nine  years,  beginning  with  the  ninth  or  tenth  year  of  age. 
This  movement  has  not  met  with  the  support  that  was 
hoped  for  by  the  advocates  of  higher  education  for  women 
in  Germany,  and  what  the  outcome  M'ill  be  is  decidedly 
Discouragring  problematical.  The  institutions  are  entirely 
ontiookfor^  private,  the  state,  which  grants  such  ample 
nasituns.  support  for  Gymnasia  for  boys,  not  giving  a 
pfennig  to  assist  those  for  girls.  And  what  is  per- 
haps still  worse,  there  is  no  outlook  for  recognition  by  the 
state,  either  by  admission  to  the  universities  or  by  permit- 
ting them  to  take  the  state  examination  qualifying  for 
teaching  in  the  higher  schools.  The  only  state  of  the 
German  Empire  that  makes  an  exception  to  this  is  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  which  recently  (April,  1895)  has 
opened  the  doors  of  her  two  universities,  Heidelberg  and 
Freiburg,  to  women  who  have  had  the  training  of  a  Gym- 
nasium on  equal  terms  with  men.  This  state,  which  was 
Baden  opens  the  first  to  have  a  Gymnasium  for  girls  within 
hernniver-  j^^g  j^orders  (Karlsruhe),  stands  among  the 
women.  foremost  states  of  Europe  in  matters  of  pro- 
gressive educational  ideas.  This  is  a  most  gratifying 
event  in  the  history  of  education  in  Germany,  which 
marks  a  new  epoch  for  her  women.  True,  several  of 
the  other  universities  admit  women  to  lectures,  provided 
the  consent  of  the  professor  and  the  Minister  of  Education 
can  be  obtained;  but  this  does  not  carry  with  it  the  right 
to  matriculate  or  to  be  a  candidate  for  a  degree.  The  most 
who  have  availed  themselves  of  this  privilege  thus  far  have 
been  American  and  English  women,  in  increasing  num- 
bers, though  still  in  only  isolated  cases.  Indeed,  hereto- 
fore there  have  been  no  means  for  German  women  to 


The  Education  of  Girls.  219 

obtain  the  necessary  preparation  to  enable  them  to  secure 
even  the  above  limited  privilege.  The  objection  that  con- 
servative professors  make  is,  that  the  admission  objecUons  of 
of  women  to  the  lectures  will  prevent  a  free  professors, 
discussion  of  many  subjects,  and  also  require  a  recasting 
and  revising  of  their  lectures. 

The  conservatism  of  the  German  people;  the  jealousy 
of  the  men  against  women  entering  the  professional  and 
intellectual  fields  which  men  alone  so  long  have  occupied; 
the  fear  that  too  much  education  will  make  woman  a 
*' bluestocking,"  and  thereby  unfit  her  for  her  first  and 
most  sacred  sphere — that  of  motherhood  and  presiding 
genius  of  the  home ;  the  lack  of  a  demand  on  the  part  of 
educated  men  that  the  wife  shall  be  their  equal 
and  companion  in  intellectual  life;  and  per-  in  the  way 
haps  more  than  all  else,  the  content  of  German  of  higher  ed- 
women  with  present  attainments,  and  want  of  Cornea.  °^ 
ambition  to  measure  themselves  with  the  sterner 
sex  in  intellectual  fields — all  of  these  things  present  difficul- 
ties in  the  way  of  the  higher  education  of  women  which  can 
be  removed  only  after  a  long  period  of  time.  But  the  facts 
above  given  in  regard  to  the  breaking  down  of  the  barriers 
that  have  excluded  her  from  the  university,  and  the  won- 
derful increase  in  the  number  of  women  admitted  to  the 
work  of  teaching  during  the  last  few  years,  as  we  have 
shown  elsewhere  (p.  166),  are  most  eneoumging  signs,  which 
give  promise  of  still  better  things  for  woman  in  Germany. 


220  School  Systems  of  Germany. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

INDUSTRIAL    (fORTBILDUXGS)    SCHOOLS. 

In  order  to  further  train  the  children  after  the  com- 
pletion of  the  common-school  course,  most  of  the  Ger- 
man states  have  established  the  so-called  'Tortbildungs'' 
schools.     The  object  of  these  schools  is — 

1.  To  review  the  studies  already  gone  over,  going  deeper 
into  the  subjects,   and  endeavoring  to  keep  up 
Object  of  the    an  interest  in  study. 

^hooS.*""^'      2.  To  establish  the  moral  life  and  fix  good 
habits. 

3.  To  give  such  industrial  instruction  as  shall  prepare 
for  some  trade  or  calling  in  life.  The  industrial  training 
is  suited  to  the  wants  of  each  community.  Thus  in  a 
mining  or  manufacturing  section  the  Fortbildungs  schools 
give  chief  attention  to  matters  connected  with  these  in- 
terests, thereby  meeting  a  practical  want.  They  cover  the 
period  from  14  to  18  years  of  age.  Attendance  in  Saxony 
and  some  other  German  states  is  compulsory,  but  there  is 
no  general  law  in  Prussia  requiring  attendance  upon  these 
Attendance  schools,  though  each  community  may  make 
voluntary,  such  regulations  for  itself  as  it  pleases.  Where 
compulsory  attendance  is  required,  no  employer  has  a  right 
to  detain  his  employes;  indeed,  he  is  practically  held  re- 
sponsible for  the  attendance  of  boys  in  his  employ.  He 
must  also  contribute  towards  the  tuition  of  each  boy  em- 
ployed by  him.  The  same  rules  apply  to  parents  whose 
sons  are  still  under  their  care.     Tuition  fees  are  not  suf- 


Industrial  {Fortbildungs)  Schools.  221 

ficient  for  their  support,  the  balance  being  made  up  by 
private  gifts,  by  local  taxes,  and  by  state  aid. 

The  state  prescribes  a  normal  minimum  course  which 
must  be  complied  with  in  order  to  receive  state 
aid.     This  includes—  courM  of  the 

1.  The  German  language,  especially  as  used  rortbUdnngs 
for  business  purposes,  and  in  writing  business  "*'®®^* 
letters. 

2.  Arithmetic^  including  the  measuring  of  surfaces  and 
solids,  together  with  what  is  necessary  for  business  life. 

3.  Drawing^   to  which  great  attention   is  given,   and 
which  is  of  utmost  value  to  practical  life. 

4.  Writing,  seeking  to  give  a  plain,  rapid  hand. 

5.  Instruction  in  natural  science,  with  particular  refer- 
ence to  its  use  in  the  industries. 

There  are  two  general  grades,  which  may  be  subdivided 
according  to  circumstances.  In  the  lower  grade  general 
culture  is  the  main  object,  although  reference  Dhrided  in 
is  had  to  the  future  calling  for  which  the  two  classes, 
young  man  intends  to  fit  himself.  In  the  upper  grade  the 
development  of  industrial  skill,  the  training  of  the  eye  and 
hand,  is  the  chief  purpose.  In  addition  to  the  subjects  of 
the  common  school,  physics,  chemistiy,  practical  and  mer- 
cantile arithmetic,  bookkeeping,  and  commercial  corre- 
spondence are  taught.  "Where  there  is  a  demand  for 
modem  languages  opportunity  is  furnished  for  their  ac- 
quirement. In  the  trades  schools  drawing  is  the  chief 
subject  taught,  and  not  less  than  8  hours  a  week,  for  two 
years  at  least,  is  expected.  Freehand  drawing  is  from 
objects,  while  sections  of  machines,  etc.,  are  drawn  with 
instruments;  8  to  10  hours  a  week  should  be   _    , 

'  Sessions 

required.     Usually  evenings  and  Sundays  are  evenings 
chosen  for  the  sessions  of    the  Fortbildungs  »ndSnnd«y8. 
school,  each  session  being  from  2  to  3  hours  in  length. 
In  country  districts  4  to  6  hours  a  week  are  required. 


222  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

Although  attendance  is  not  compulsory,  in  most  parts  of 
Prussia  these  schools  are  attended  very  regularly,  and  the 
youth  are  glad  to  avail  themselves  of  tliis  opportunity. 
There  are  over  1200  such  schools  in  the  kingdom,  in  which 
about  70,000  youth  are  being  instructed.  They  are  not 
generally  for  girls,  although  there  are  in  many  commu- 
Chiefiyior  nities  schools  in  which  they  also  can  learn 
^y*'  stenography,   commercial   correspondence,  and 

other  subjects,  which  prepare  them  to  gain  a  livelihood. 

The  instruction  is  usually  given  by  teachers  of  the  regu- 
lar schools,  who  make  use  of  this  opportunity  to  add  to 
their  income,  though  practical  specialists  are  employed  in 
schools  for  artisans. 

Berlin  has  a  splendid  system  of  Fortbildungs  schools 
under  the  direction  of  the  city  school  authorities.  Attend- 
ance is  not  compulsory,  but  over  14,000  young  men  and 
women  availed  themselves  in  1894-5  of  these  fine  oppor- 
tunities furnished  by  the  city  for  their  advancement  in 
knowledge  and  to  fit  them  for  some  useful  calling.  The 
instruction  costs  2  marks  for  each  two-hour  course  and 
4  marks  for  each  four-hour  course  for  a  half  year.  No 
The  FortbUd-  student  is  excluded  from  a  course  from  want  of 
ungs  schools  funds,  there  being  means  provided  for  worthy 
°  ^  ■  students  who  cannot  pay.  Opportunity  is  of- 
fered to  learn  almost  eveiy  trade  or  calling,  the  number  of 
professions  taught  in  1894-5  being  163,  embracing  every 
branch  of  industry.     The  courses  given  were  as  follows: 

In  German 150  courses  with  4568  students 

"  arithmetic 150       *'        **    4355       '* 

"  general  drawing.  169       **         "     4759       ** 
"  technical    "       .  127       "         ''    3449       " 

**  bookkeeping 70       "        "     1988       " 

"geometry 25       "         ♦'      684       " 

**  physics 39       *'         **     1216       " 

"  French 67      "        ''    1455      " 


Industrial  {Fortbildungs)  Schools.  223 

In  English 52  courses  with  1142  students 

"  Modelling 20       ''         **      397       " 

"Miscellaneous...   159       "        "     4468       *' 

City  Superintendent  Bertram  takes  great  interest  in  the 
development  of  these  schools.  He  does  not  want  attend- 
ance to  be  compulsory,  believing  that  the  habit  Snp«riiitejid- 
of  regular  attendance  acquired  in  the  common  ^^g'^yi^ 
schools,  and  the  interest  in  the  subjects  them-  erai  ideas, 
selves,  will  be  sufficient  to  secure  regular  attendance. 
The  results  have  amply  justified  his  opinion,  as  attendance 
is  very  regular,  while  the  pupils  work  with  added  zeal  and 
interest  from  the  very  fact  of  their  freedom.  These  in- 
dustrial schools  are  therefore  a  great  blessing  to  ambitious 
young  men  and  women  to  prepare  themselves  to  be  skilful 
artisans,  merchants,  and  workmen,  and  for  other  practical 
pureuits. 

It  must  be  confessed,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  Fort- 
bildungs schools  in  the  country  and  in  small  towns  are  not 
a  decided  success.     The  opportunities  furnished,  of  course, 
cannot  be  so  varied  as  in  a  large  city,  and  therefore  the  in- 
dividual wants  and  tastes  cannot  be  consulted.     Then,  too, 
the  vast  difference  between  country  and  city  children — a 
difference  far  greater  than  one  finds  in  America  j-ortbUd- 
— is  an  important  factor.     Country  children  are  ungs 
subjected  to  longer  hours  when  they  enter  ser-  !^^'^^*^ 
vice  than  are  city  children;    besides,  contact  notwhoUy 
with  men  and  things  in  city  life  sharpens  the  *  »wce»8. 
intelligence  of  the  latter.     We  have  seen  how  the  method  of 
instruction  leaves  the  child  at  14  with  but  little  ability  or 
inclination  to  continue  the  pursuit  of  knowledge. 

The  city  boy  with  opportunity  to  receive  instruction  in 
the  profession  which  he  has  chosen  is  very  likely  to  attend 
the  Fortbildungs  school;  while  the  country  boy,  tired  from 
overwork,  having  perhaps  no  higher  ambition  than  to  be  a 
day-laborer  or  servant,  and  having  only  a  limited  number 


224  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

of  branches  to  choose  from,  is  not  likely  to  voluntarily 
attend  school;  and  if  attendance  upon  the  Fortbildungs 
school  is  compulsory,  the  school  is  a  bore  for  both  pupils 
and  teachers.  It  must  be  admitted,  therefore,  that  the 
problem  of  the  further  development  of  the  intellectual  side 
of  the  youth  of  Germany  after  leaving  the  school  at  14  is 
by  no  means  solved. 

Its  solution  would  seem  to  us  to  be  much  nearer  if  the 
methods  of  instruction  in  the  8  school  years  were  modified 
so  as  to  awaken  more  self-activity  and  iude- 
Swtionm"  Pendence  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  This  will 
the  common  leave  the  children  eager  to  know  more  of  the 
schools  most  secrets  of  knowledge,  and  when  they  have  satis- 
fied the  law  as  to  educational  requirements, 
they  will  be  prepared  for  something  more,  and  will  be  eager 
to  attain  it.  Then  will  the  Fortbildungs  schools  have  a 
great  field  before  them,  and  will  fill  an  important  place  in 
the  educational  system. 


The  Kindergarten,  225 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

THE  KINDERGARTEN. 

The  kindergarten  is  a  private  enterprise  in  Prussia, 
though  the  school  board  of  the  community  has  oversight 
of  it,  and  none  can  be  established  without  consent  of 
the  school  authorities.  None  of  the  subjects  private  in- 
that  belong  to  the  elementary  school  course  "titntioiu. 
may  be  taught  in  the  kindergarten,  the  state  schools  pre- 
ferring to  take  the  children  without  any.  special  school  prep- 
aration, and  begin  from  the  start  with  their  own  methods. 
In  some  localities  children  have  been  kept  by  consent  of 
the  school  boai-d  in  the  kindergarten  until  their  eighth  or 
ninth  year,  the  kindergarten  taking  the  character  of  pri- 
vate preparatory  schools.  But  this  is  allowed  only  when 
such  as  are  above  six  years  of  age  are  given  the  instruction 
of  the  elementary  schools  required  by  law,  in  rooms  and 
classes  separate  from  the  kindergarten,  and  by  teachers 
licensed  by  the  state.  No  part  of  the  expense  is  a  public 
tax,  nor  are  the  kindergartens  any  part  of  the  school  sys- 
tem. Indeed,  the  kindergarten  is  not  regarded  Kinderear- 
as  a  school,  but  as  a  place  for  taking  care  of  lit-  larded  as  a 
tie  children  whose  mothers  must  go  out  to  work  school, 
during  the  day.  Hence  young  women  of  but  little  edu- 
cation are  often  found  in  charge  of  the  Kindergartens. 
School  authorities  and  teachers  generally  regard  the  kin- 
dergarten as  possessing  but  little  educational  value,  and  in 
fact  many  believe  it  to  be  a  positive  detriment  to  the  edu- 
cational advancement  of  the  child.     The  following  state- 


226  ,      School  Systems  of  Germany. 

ment  of  an  eminent  German  educator  fairly  expresses  the 
Educators  general  sentiment  among  teachers:  "  It  is  better 
pose^dtouie'*'  ^^^  children  to  be  in  charge  of  a  kindergarten, 
kindergarten,  or  institution  of  that  kind,  than  to  be  left  alone 
at  home  or  to  be  allowed  to  run  about  the  streets.  As  a 
pedagogical  institution,  the  kindergarten  has  no  value." 

The  following  rescript  from  the  department  of  the  Min- 
ister of  Education  is  so  suggestive,  not  alone  of  official 
opinions  on  this  matter,  but  of  those  of  schoolmen  gener- 
ally, that  we  give  it  in  full : 

Beklin,  April  7,  1884. 

*'It  has  come  to  the  knowledge  of  the  royal  government 
that  in  the  kindergarten  of  Eraulein  N.  in  M.  not  only 
j^lays  are  taught,  but  also  a  beginning  is  made  in  reading 
and  number,  short  poems  are  taught,  and  children's  songs 
sung.  There  is  no  harm  in  the  latter;  it  is  allowed  that 
Limitations  only  short  prayers,  and  verses  of  songs  that  the 
emment.  children  can  comprehend,  be  taught  in  these  in- 
stitutions. Everything  that  pertains  to  the  work  of  the 
elementary  schools,  every  specific  preparation  for  the  work 
of  the  latter,  must  be  strictly  excluded,  and  these  schools 
can  in  no  way  be  allowed  to  take  the  character  of  institu- 
tions of  learning.  Especially  can  neither  reading  nor  arith- 
metic be  allowed  a  place  in  them. 

'*  The  royal  government  takes  this  occasion  to  call  the 
special  attention  of  district  and  local  school-inspectors  to 
these  matters  in  their  inspection  of  all  schools  for  small 
children." 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  government  definitely  states 
its  position  in  regard  to  the  kindergarten.  It 
^h^ers^t"  iiitends  to  guard  against  the  too  early  introduc- 
regfardedas  tion  of  Severe  mental  activity  whereby  the 
th**^^^**^  children  may  be  injured,  or  acquire  an  aversion 
to  study;  and  secondly,  not  to  allow  the  intro- 
duction of  methods  which  will  not  harmonize  witli  the 


77?^  Kindergarten.  227 

regular  methods  of  the  elementary  school.  Nor  is  it 
required  that  teachers  of  kindergartens  shall  possess  the 
qualifications  demanded  of  all  teachers  in  private  as  well 
as  public  schools.  They  are  not  regarded  by  the  state  as 
teachers,  but  are  simply  women  who  by  moral  chamcter 
and  natural  bent  are  fitted  to  take  care  of  little  children,* 

The  scope  of  the  kindergarten,  according  to  the  idea  of 
the  school  authorities  and  as  practised  in  the  institutions 
thomsclves,  is  fully  indicated  in  a  rescript  from  the  Depart- 
ment of  Education  given  out  in  1870,  the  situation,  how- 
ever, not  having  materially  changed  since  that  time: 

1.  "Institutions  for  the  care  of  little  children — kinder- 
gartens, etc. — take  in  charge  little  children  whose  parents 
are  obliged  to  go  out  to  work.  The  purpose  of  xhe  rescript 
these  institutions  is  to  watch  over  and  interest  "^  ^'^o- 
the  children,  as  well  as  to  teach  them  cleanliness,  order, 
and  good  habits. 

2.  "There  may  also  be  kindergartens  established  for 
well-to-do  parents  who  cannot  give  the  necessary  time  to 
their  children.  Games,  walks  in  the  open  air,  and  light 
physical  exercises  are  indulged  in,  while  short  poems  and 
songs  are  learned.  They  cannot,  however,  interfere  with 
the  work  of  the  elementary  school,  which  begins  when  the 
child  is  six  years  of  age. 

3.  "Although  these  institutions  are  private,  and  cannot 
be  supported  by  public  tax,  they  are  under  the  control  of 
the  school  board,  and  can  be  established  only  with  con- 


*  In  describing  the  position  of  the  kindergarten,  the  German  lan- 
guage admits  of  a  distinction  that  is  hard  to  make  in  English.  Thus 
an  "  Erziehuiigsanstalt "  is  an  institution  for  educating  ot  training, 
while  an  "  Unterrichtsanstalt  "  is  an  institution  for  instructing.  The 
kindergarten  is  classitied  under  the  former  ;  that  is,  it  may  train  and 
in  a  sense  educate,  but  must  not  give  the  formal  instruction  which 
belongs  to  the  elementary  schools,  and  which  must  not  commence 
until  after  the  sixth  vear. 


228  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

sent  of  the  same.  They  may  be  established  by  persons  of 
good  moral  character  possessing  aptness  in  the  management 
of  little  children,  even  though  they  have  not  passed  the  ex- 
aminations required  of  teachers  in  the  regular  schools. 

4.  "The  state  requires  all  children  to  attend  school  regu- 
larly after  the  sixth  year.  If  children  are  kept  in  the  kin- 
dergarten after  that  time  they  must  be  taught  in  separate 
rooms  and  by  properly  licensed  teachers. 

5.  "In  addition  to  amusements,  physical  exercise,  songs, 
and  little  poems,  it  is  important  to  implant  in  the  souls  of 
the  children  love  of  God  and  reverence  for  sacred  things. 

6.  "It  is  recommended  that  school  boards  encourage  the 
establishment  of  these  schools,  and  assist  by  every  possible 
means  in  their  maintenance;  yet  attendance  cannot  be  made 
obligatory,  nor  is  it  the  duty  of  the  state  to  give  them  finan- 
cial support." 

With  the  above  limitations  placed  upon  the  kindergarten 
it  will  readily  appear  that  it  can  prosper  only  with  diffi- 
culty; and  the  fact  is,  as  might  be  expected,  its  influence 
from  an  educational  standpoint  is  generally  not  healthy.  As 
the  teachers  are  only  required  to  possess  good  moral  charac- 
Teachers  ^®^  ^^^  natural  bent  for  caring  for  children,  they 
often  poorly  often  lack  the  professional  training  so  neces- 
**'^^***  sary  for  good  teaching.  Many  of  the  so-called 
kindergartens,  therefore,  are  simply  makeshifts,  in  which 
Froebel's  plays  are  introduced  as  a  means  of  employing  the 
children,  but  without  regard  to  system  or  a  definite  end, 
the  main  purpose  of  the  institutions  being  to  take  care  of 
the  children  until  the  mothers  come  for  them.  It  is  no 
wonder,  therefore,  that  educators  generally  are  opposed  to 
them  as  they  now  exist.  As  might  be  expected,  these  chil- 
dren enter  the  elementary  school  at  the  sixth  year,  with  bad 
habits  acquired  in  kindergartens,  where  order  was  scarcely 
known,  and  where  system  could  only  be  termed  chaos. 

This  is  not  the  fault  of  Froebel's  teachings,  but  of  their 


The  Kindergarten,  229 

wrong  application.  These  teachings  properly  applied, 
whether  it  be  by  the  intelligent  mother  in  the  home  or  by 
the  school  for  little  children  of  whatever  name,  are  most 
healthful  and  beneficial,  and  should  serve  to  stimulate  and 
direct  the  child  activities  so  as  to  be  of  great  assistance  in 
his  after  school  life. 

Froebel's  ideas  are  certainly  more  successfully  applied  in 
America  than  in  Germany,     Undoubtedly  this  is  largely 
owing  to  the  freedom  accorded  the  kindergarten  Kinderear- 
in  our  country,  where  the  state  does  not  inter-  tens  in 
fere  with  this  work  nor  hinder  its  application,  be^g^^a- 
Germany  is  perfectly  sound  in  guarding  against  those  of 
too  early  severe  mental  activity,  and  her  eminent  G«"n*J»y« 
kindergartners  fully  recognize  this;    but  she  is  wrong  in 
restricting  their  freedom,  in  inspecting  them  as  schools  but 
not  recognizing  them  as  such,  and  in  not  recognizing  their 
teachers  as  teachers. 

The  question  now  arises.  What  place  has  the  kinder- 
garten in  our  system  of  education  ?    We  answer:  1.  There 
should  be  kindergartens  established  in  connec- 
tion with  the  school  system  of  each  village  or  to^American 
city  at  public  cost,  the  same  as  the  other  schools,   school  sys- 
the  number  to  depend  upon  the  needs.  *^"' 

2.  The  teachers  should  bo  appointed  the  same  as  other 
teachers,  but  must  have  been  especially  prepared  for  kin- 
dergarten work. 

3.  These  schools  should  be  under  the  direction  of  the 
school  board  and  the  school  superintendent,  the  same  as 
other  schools. 

4.  A  course  should  be  marked  out  which  would  harmo- 
nize with  the  primary-school  course,  and  yet  be  flexible 
enough  to  allow  great  freedom  to  the  teacher.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  that  the  work  be  not  beyond  the  mental 
capacity  of  the  children;  indeed,  but  little  mental  work 
should  be  allowed.      Chief  attention  should  be  given  to 


230  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

bodily  development,  and  the  formation  of  habits  of  clean- 
liness, politeness,  regularity,  and^order. 

6.  Children  from  4  to  6  years  of  age  should  be  admitted, 
though  there  should  be  absolutely  no  compulsion  as  to  at- 
tendance. 

But  the  presence  of  the  kindergarten  in  a  community 
should  not  be  an  excuse  for  mothers  to  shirk  their  sacred 
duty  to  their  children.  It  is  certainly  far  better  that 
children  should  not  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  strangers 
before  the  sixth  year,  even  for  only  a  few  hours  a  day, 
if  the  mother  is  capable  of  intelligently  directing  the 
development  of  the  child  in  those  early  years.  This 
is  the  most  important  and  sacred  duty  of  motherhood, 
and  only  necessity  and  lack  of  ability  should  ever  be 
Eindergar-  an  excuse  for  committing  this  charge  to  other 
tens  must  hands.  The  mother  is  the  natural  educator  of 
the  mother's  the  young  child;  she  should  prepare  herself  for 
dnty-  this  God-committed  trust,  and  must  not  shift 

this  responsibility  upon  some  one  else.  There  can  be  no 
duty  for  the  woman  and  mother  that  shall  supersede  the 
duty  of  caring  for  and  training  her  own  children,  especially 
in  their  earliest  years.  She  should  study  to  know  all  that 
is  best  and  wisest  in  the  training  of  children,  and  Froebel's 
plays  and  theories  may  be  understood  and  applied  by  her 
in  her  own  home.  In  this  way  she  can  serve  her  children, 
and  through  them  her  country  and  humanity,  as  in  no  other 
conceivable  way.  This  is  her  one  transcendent  duty  during 
Hiehestduty  ^^®  ^^^^^  years  of  her  children  to  which  she 
of  mother-  must  consecrate  herself.  Froebel  sought  not 
^°"**  alone  to  reach  poor  children  who  could  not  be 

properly  taught  at  home,  but  also  to  instruct  mothers  how 
to  teach  their  children.  He  never  meant  to  furnish  an 
excuse  for  mothers  to  shirk  their  duty  to  their  children, 
and  no  such  conclusion  can  be  drawn  from  his  writings. 
One  of  the  best  preparations  for  the  duties  of  future 


The  Kindergarten.  231 

motherhood  that  young  women  could  take  would  be  a 
tliorough  course  in  a  kindergarten.  Thus  the  teachings  of 
Froebel  would  in  time  bear  richest  fruit,  not  only  in  the 
kindergarten,  but  better  still  in  the  homes,  under  the  wise 
guidance  of  consecrated  and  intelligent  mothers. 


233  School  Systems  of  Germany, 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

INSTITUTIONS    FOR  THE   UNFORTUNATE. 

The  institutions  for  the  blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  idiots, 
orphans,  incorrigibles,  and  houses  of  refuge  which  have 
schools  connected  with  them,  are  under  the  direction  of 
the  school  authorities,  therefore  a  little  space  must  be  de- 
voted to  a  study  of  them.  The  teachers  of  these  institu- 
tions are  state  officers,  who  must  prepare  themselves  for 
their  work,  and  are  entitled  to  the  same  rights  as  other 
state  teachers. 

Blind  children  often  attend  the  regular  schools,  where 
they  make  more  rapid  progress  than  the  other  children,  be- 
cause they  are  undisturbed  by  their  surroundings.  The 
German  method  of  instruction,  that  of  relating  to  the  chil- 
dren, is  especially  favorable  for  the  blind  children.  When 
parents  are  able  to  wholly  or  partially  support  their  chil- 
dren in  the  institutions  they  are  required  to  do  so.  When 
they  are  not  able,  the  expense  becomes  a  public  matter. 
Children  are  admitted  at  the  seventh  instead  of  the  sixth 
year.  The  course  of  study  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Teaching  in-  ordinary  schools.  They  are  also  taught  trades 
**°^^^r  suitable  to  their  condition.  The  schools  seek 
self-support-  not  only  to  give  general  culture,  but  also  to  pre- 
^'  pare  them  to  take  care  of  themselves.     The  in- 

stitutions for  deaf  and  dumb  teach  not  only  the  subjects  of 
the  common-school  course,  but  the  children  also  learn  to 
speak  and  understand  the  speech  of  others,  even  though 
they  cannot  hear. 

In  these   institutions  the  classes  must  necessarily  be 


Institutions  for  the  Unfortunate.  233 

small,  80  that  each  child  can  receive  a  great  amount  of  per- 
sonal attention.  Thus  in  institutions  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb  the  classes  number  from  six  to  ten  pupils.  After 
they  leave  school  there  are  societies  that  assist  them  to  find 
employment,  and  in  some  cases  furnish  a  permanent  place 
of  shelter. 

The  following  table  will  furnish  a  general  idea  of  what 
Prussia  is  doing  for  unfortunates  of  various  kinds: 

INSTITUTIONS  FOB  THE  UNFORTUNATE. 

Institutions.                  No.  Boys.  Girls.  Total.   Teachers. 

Blind 15  397  238          635          78 

Deaf  and  Dumb 49  2348  1732  4080        414 

Weak-minded 34  1135  763  1898        106 

Houses  of  Refuge 141  5170  1728  6898        240 

Orphan  Asylums 72  3127  1959  5086        166 

In  each  institution  there  are  teachers  who  are  employed 
only  a  part  of  their  time ;  they  are  not  included  in  these 
numbers. 

Of  the  49  inststutions  for  deaf  and  dumb  9  are  private, 
but  they  also  are  under  the  control  of  the  state. 

Thus  the  Prussian  school  system  seeks  to  furnish  every 
class  of  children  with  such  training  as  will  prepare  them 
for  the  duties  of  life,  and  the  better  to  bear  whatever  afflic- 
tion may  be  laid  upon  them.  The  life  of  those  who  are 
unfortunate  from  birth,  or  from  circumstances,  is  thus 
made  easier  to  endure,  and  all  that  education  can  do  to  in- 
crease their  happiness  and  make  them  capable 
of  greater  usefulness  is  done  for  them.  The  theanfor- 
fate  of  those  who  are  circumscribed  by  the  lack  tunate  great 
of  any  of  the  senses  is  made  lighter  to  bear,  and  ^  ' 

great  blessings  are  conferred  upon  a  large  number  of 
children. 


234  School  Systems  of  Germany » 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

GENERAL  STATISTICS. 

Although  we  have  given  many  statistics  from  time  to 
time,  it  will  be  of  interest  to  examine  certain  general  sta- 
tistics. These  are  for  the  year  1891-2,  published  in  1893, 
the  latest  that  have  been  published. 

GENERAL  SCHOOL  STATISTICS  FOR  PRUSSIA. 

Number  of  children  in  the  common  schools. .. .  4,916,476 

Of  these  about  two  thirds,  or 3,107,701 

were  of  evangelical  faith. 

Number  of  schools 34,742 

"       "  class-rooms 72,921 

"        '*  city  schools 3,871 

"        ''  country  schools 30,871 

"        *'  class-rooms  in  city  schools 26,616 

"        ''  "  **  country  schools 46,305 

**        **  children  in  schools  taught  by  one 

teacher 1,536,390 

"        **  children  in  schools  taught  by  more 

than  one  teacher 3,380,086 

«*        "  boys 2,467,558 

"        '*  girls 2,448,918 

**       taught  in  mixed  classes* 3,410,081 

"       of  regular  teachers  with  fixed  positions        71,731 
**        **  assistants  and  teachers  partially  em- 
ployed   5,396 

*  By  mixed  classes  is  here  meant  those  in  which  boys  and  girls  are 
taught  together.  This  is  done  in  country  districts,  where  separation 
is  impracticable. 


General  Statistics.  235 

The  confession  of  the  t^acliers  was  as  follows: 

Tj,  ,.  \     jMale 44,937 

Evangelical.,  jp^^^j^ 3^^^^ 

^  ,,    ,.  (Male 17,959 

Catholic...  ]j,^^^^^ 4,890 

T     .  ,  I  Male 336 

J'™'" Iremale 68 

Other  faiths.  |  "^.[[zz::::::::::-::::.     \ 

Amount    applied    to    common-school 

purposes 146,225,312  marks 

Of  this  for  teachers'  salaries ,  .     74,735,002      "■ 

And  for  new  buildings 21,820,194 

1871.      1891. 

Per  cent  of  schools  with  1  teacher 74y''<j^    Oiy"^ 

"  "         "     2  teachers 14,^     18,*^ 

"  *'         "     3  or  more  teachers. . .   10^^     17iiff 

This  shows  a  material  improvement  in  the  situation,  and 
that  the  force  of  teachers  in  the  small  places  has  beju  in- 
creased, thereby  reducing  the  number  of  pupils  to  each 
teacher. 

In  the  thirty-five  districts  (not  counting  Berlin)  into 
which  the  kingdom  is  divided  the  average  number  of 
pupils  to  each  teacher,  in  1891,  was  as  follows: 

1.  In  no  district  is  the  average  under  50  in  either  city  or 
country. 

2.  IN  CITIES. 

In  14  districts  the  number  was  between 50  and  60 

it  Y7        "         '<         **         **  **  60    "    70 

•'*    3       ''        **         "        "  "      70   "    80 

"    1  district     "         "        "     above 80 

3.  IN  THE  COUNTRY, 

In    5  districts  the  average  was  between 50  and  60 

*'  11         ♦'       "       "         "  "       60    ♦*    70 

••11         "       "       «*         '*  «*        70    *•    80 

"    8        "       **       "        "    above ,...  80 


236  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

As  these  figures  apply  to  whole  royal  governmental  dis- 
tricts, it  will  readily  appear  that  in  many  schools  there  are 
more  than  100  children  under  the  care  of  one  teacher. 
Conditions  In  I'^us,  the  district  of  Posen,  with  an  average  for 
Posen.  its  country  schools  of  95  pupils  to  a  teacher, 

and  its  many  small  schools  in  isolated  districts  (5  with  less 
than  21  pupils),  has  many  schools  in  which  the  number  of 
pupils  is  120  or  more.  In  1886  there  were  69  schools  in 
the  district  of  Posen  with  more  than  150  children  to  one 
teacher,  while  in  1891  the  number  of  such  schools  was  re- 
duced to  10 :  a  great  improvement  indeed,  but  still  leaving 
much  to  be  wished  for.  Nor  is  Posen  an  isolated  district 
in  this  respect,  although  the  situation  is  worse  there  than 
in  any  other  part  of  Germany,  owing  to  the  poverty  of  the 
people. 

The  ''normal"  number  fixed  bylaw  in  Prussia  under 
Eighty  the  the  present  conditions  is  80  in  schools  having 
i^r.  one  teacher,  and  70  to  each  teacher  in  shcools 

having  more  than  one  teacher. 

These  numbers  by  no  means  indicate  the  ultimate  wish  of 
educators,  but  they  are  all  that  can  be  asked  for  under  pres- 
ent conditions.  Most  teachers  recognize  the  fact  that  a 
much  smaller  number  than  the  above  is  necessary  for  best 
results,  but  such  reduction  cannot  be  attained  for  some 
Morestmto  ^^^^  ^°  come.  But  with  these  numbers  as  a 
te  wished  basis  of  attendance,  about  two  thirds  of  the  chil- 
'"''•  dren  of  Prussia  receive  instruction  under  normal 

conditions.  There  is  reason  to  take  courage,  however,  as 
the  per  cent  of  those  taught  under  normal  conditions  in- 
creased from  52^^  in  1882  to  66^  in  1891  owing  largely 
to  the  new  pension  law  of  1884. 

But  another  fact  is  to  be  noticed  in  this  connection.  Al- 
though there  is  thorough  enforcement  of  the  compulsory 
law  which  requires  every  child  to  attend  school,  there 
were  only  3239  children  out  of  nearly  five    millions  in 


General  Statistics.  237 

1891  excluded  from  school  for  want  of  place  to  instruct 
them. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  schools  that  do  not  have 
tlie  required  normal  number;  indeed,  there  are  2135  small 
schools  having  less  than  twenty  pupils.  Where  it  has  been 
possible  to  do  so,  two  or  more  schools  have  been  united  in 
one;  but  there  are  still  the  above  number  which  are  situated 
in  remote  places  which  prevents  their  uniting  with  another 
school.  Then,  too,  schools  are  sometimes  small  on  account 
of  confessional  reasons,  it  being  allowed  to  establish  a 
school  when  there  are  twenty  children  of  a  certain  confes- 
sion. Still,  schools  are  supported,  the  course  of  study 
carried  out,  regular  attendance  required  throughout  the 
Tvhole  year,  just  the  same  as  in  the  largest  cities.  In 
such  cases  the  state  must  contribute  the  largest  part  of  the 
expense,  as  the  inhabitants  are  generally  poor. 

The  cost  of  all  schools  in  1891-92,  in  round  numbers,  was 
as  follows: 

Universities 14,117,000  marks 

High  schools 31,309,000     " 

Common  and  middle  schools 177,100,000     ** 

Schools  for  trades  and  special  branches    10,000,000     ** 


232,526,000 


This  was  an  increase  of  over  26  million  marks  in  two 
years,  and  an  average  of  7.76  marks  for  each  inhabitant  of 
the  realm.  It  comprised  about  one  half  of  the  school  taxes 
total  amount  raised  by  direct  taxation  for  com-  tot^f^'^t 
mainity,  church,  school,  district,  and  provincial  raised, 
purposes,  and  about  one  fourth  of  the  amount  raised  for  all 
state  purposes.  The  state  bears  about  four  fifths  of  the 
expense  of  the  universities,  the  other  fifth  being  met  by  fees 
from  the  students,  by  income  from  endowments,  etc. 

The  last  general  census  of  Prussia  in  1890  showed  that 


238  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

there  were  5,299,310  children  of  school  age  (6-14).  Of 
these  93  per  cent  attended  the  public  schools,  5|  per  cent 
private  schools,  3239  were  prevented  from  attending  school 
from  lack  of  room,  10,041  on  account  of  physical  or  mental 
Remarkable  incapacity,  and  945  children,  or  about  yf^  of  one 
comr^OTy  P®^  cent,  failed  to  attend  school  without  sufficient 
iwas.  cause  for  absence.     This  last  fact  is  remark- 

able, as  it  shows  unexcused  absence  for  only  two  children 
out  of  ten  thousand — an  almost  perfect  result. 


other  German  States.  239 


CHAPTER  XXXVn. 

OTHEB  GEBMAN   STATES. 

It  is  not  possible  in  the  scope  of  this  work  to  give  a  com- 
plete account  of  the  school  systems  of  all  of  the  German 
states.     Nor  is  it  necessary,  as  that  of  Prussia,  which  we 
have  so  fully  discussed,  sufficiently  illustrates  the  general 
plan  of  education  in  Germany  for  all  of  the  purposes  of  this 
book.     Besides,  Prussia  is  the  largest  state  of  ^rwMAtvx- 
the  confederacy,  its  population  being  about  two  nishes  the 
thirds  of  that  of  the  whole  empire.     Then,  too,   ^'^  ^^oiei. 
she  was  the  first  nation  to  establish  a  thorough  system  of 
education,  and  the  other  German  states  have  accepted  the 
models  Prussia  famished  and  applied  them  to  their  own 
schools.     While  it  must  be  admitted  that  some  of  the  other 
states  have  surpassed  Prussia  in  some  respects,  the  fact  still 
remains  that  she  is  on  the  whole  still  foremost  among  them 
in  her  schools. 

But  a  little  space  may  properly  be  devoted  to  a  compari- 
son of  the  school  systems  of  the  other  German  states  with 
that  of  Prussia.  As  in  America,  each  state  is  Each  state 
entirely  independent  in  its  school  management,  independent, 
though  there  is  a  closer  bond  of  mutual  agreement  upon 
many  school  questions  than  exists  between  the  American 
states. 

Upon  the  following  points  there  is  general  agreement 
among  all  of  the  states  of  the  German  Empire : 

1.  The  state  has  a  right  to  require  regular  attendance  at 
school  for  every  day  that  the  school  is  in  session. 
•     All  of  the  states  have  entered  into  a  compact  to  enforce 
this.     The  period  of  school  attendance  differs,   in  most 


240  School  Systems  oj  Germany, 

states  being  as  in  Prussia,  6-14;  in  Bavaria  it  is  6-13,  and 
in  some  others  it  is  7-14;  in  Alsace  and  Loraine  boys  are 
Compulsory  required  to  attend  from  6-14  and  girls  6-13. 
education  Where  children  at  14  have  not  attained  the 
general.  necessary  mental  and  moral  development  they 
may  be  retained  longer  in  school.  Nearly  all  have  the 
Fortbildungs  schools,  with  a  2  or  3  years'  course ;  but  in 
some  states  attendance  is  compulsory,  and  the  courses  are 
thoroughly  carried  out,  especially  in  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and 
Hessen. 

2.  All  states  are  divided  i?ito  districts,  which  are  sub- 
divided until  the  local  school  district  is  reached,  over  which 
a  local  school  board  is  placed.  The  control  and  support  of 
the  schools  rest  largely  with  each  community.  The  state, 
however,  retains  sufficient  authority  to  secure  proper 
obedience  to  its  demands  as  to  education. 

3.  The  subjects  taught  are  practically  the  same  every- 
where, namely,  religion,  grammar,  reading,  writing,  arith- 
Sal>jects  metic,  beginning  of  geometry,  drawing,  history, 
taught.  geography,  natural  science,  singing,  gymnastics, 
and  needlework.  In  general  religious  instruction  is  under 
the  oversight  of  pastors  of  the  various  confessions,  they 
being  often  allowed  to  enter  the  schools  and  give  instruc- 
tion, especially  in  Catholic  countries.  There  are  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  schools,  such  as  "elementary,"  '^'middle," 
and  ''higher,"  called  often  by  different  names,  which  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  various  ranks  of  people. 

4.  The  support  of  the  schools  rests  largely  with  the  com- 
munity, the  state  rendering  assistance  so  as  not  to  make 
the  local  burden  too  heavy.  The  local  board  fix  the 
amount  they  need  for  the  support  of  their  school,  ratifica- 
Howcostof  tion  by  a  higher  authority  being  necessary, 
schools  is  The  expense  is  covered  by  endowments,  income 
raised.  Iyoto.  school  lands  and  school  funds,  tuition 
t^&,  local  taxes,  and  state  contribution.     In  most  states 


other  German  States.  241 

the  disposition  is  to  require  no  tuition  fees  in  the  common 

school,  making  it  free;  but  some  still  continue  this  practice. 

In  all  cases  tuition  is  required  in  schools  higher  than  the 

common  schools.     In  most  states  the  teachers'  „  ,  ^    , 

.  Tk         .       ,  Salaries  in 

salaries  are  better  than  those  of  Prussia,  the  state  other  states 

fixing  a  minimum  salary  below  which  the  local  »«tter  tiian 

board  are  not  allowed  to  go — an  end  which  the 

Prussian  teachers  have  long  been  striving  to  bring  about. 

5.  The  qualifications  of  the  teachers  are  about  the  same 
in  all  of  the  states,  and  the  certificates  from  one  state  are 
recognized  in  all  other  states.  The  necessity  of  special 
training  for  teachers,  and  the  duty  of  the  state  to  furnish 
it,  are  established  principles  in  every  part  of  the  empire. 
The  course  requires  six  years'  work  after  the  common- 
school  course  (14  years  of  age),  and  should  be  completed 
at  about  the  20th  year.  There  must  be  at  least  a  year  in 
the  practice  school,  and  after  graduation  the  candidate 
must  serve  a  term  of  probation  before  being  probation 
permanently  appointed.  The  seminaries  are  required, 
confessional  in  character,  the  sexes  being  taught  separately. 

6.  The  teachers  are  appointed  temporarily  at  first,  but 
after  a  service  of  from  two  to  six  years  they  must  pass  a 
second  examination,  after  which  they  are  permanently  ap- 
pointed and  are  officers  of  the  state.  Their  salaries  ad- 
vance with  length  of  service.  Pensions  are  Pensions, 
granted  in  all  of  the  states,  the  minimum  varying  from 
25  to  40  per  cent  of  their  salary,  and  the  maximum  reach- 
ing from  75  to  100  per  cent  of  the  same. 

Saxony,  where  teachers  are  generally  best  paid,  begins 
with  33i  per  cent  of  the  salary,  and  reaches  80  per  cent. 
In  Hessen  it  finally  reaches  100  per  cent  of  the  salary. 
The  teachers  throughout  Germany  must  be  pedagogically 
trained,  cannot  be  removed  except  for  cause,  have  a  right 
to  a  salary  sufficient  for  their  needs,  are  entitled  to  a 
pension  when  incapacitated  for  work,  and  are  state  offi- 


242  School  Systems  of  Germany. 

cials,  who,  by  virtue  of  their  oflBce  and  character,  com- 
mand respect. 

7.  The  private  scJiools  laid  the  foundations  of  the  school 
systems  in  all  of  the  states.  They  are  under  state  over- 
sight, and  in  some  states  parents  who  send  their  children 
to  private  schools  are  exempt  from  local  school  taxes.  As 
the  public  schools  become  better  the  private  schools  flourish 
less  and  less.  And  yet  they  have  a  field  which  they  will 
always  occupy — that  of  institutions  for  the  education  of 
those  who  desire  exclusiveness  and  are  able  to  pay  for  it. 
Their  retention  is  also  to  be  desired  as  a  means  of  intro- 
^Yivsde  ducing  advanced  methods  of  instruction.  Their 
schools  should  freedom  affords  them  an  opportunity  for  experi- 
be  retained,  j^enting,  which,  on  account  of  the  rigid  regu- 
lations of  the  public  schools  and  the  conservatism  of  the 
school  authorities,  is  almost  wholly  impossible  in  the  latter. 

The  following  statistics  will  show  in  general  what  is  be- 
ing done  for  the  education  of  the  youth  of  the  German 
Empire  in  1891-2: 

No.  of  public  schools 56,563 

No.  of  teachers  fully  employed 120,032 

Of  these  11  per  cent  were  female,  or 13,750 

No.  of  school-children 7, 925, 688 

Total  cost  of  the  schools 242,400,000  m. 

Of  this  the  general  state  treasuries  paid . . .  49,428,470  " 
The  population  of  the  empire  was  about.  50,000,000 
So  that  the  number  of  children  in  the  schools  was  about 
16  per  cent  of  the  population.  There  was  one  school  to 
874  inhabitants,  and  the  average  number  of  pupils  to  each 
teacher  was  66.  The  average  cost  per  pupil  was  30.68 
marks. 

"While  each  German  state  manages  its  own  school  affairs 
and  has  its  own  peculiarities,  all  agree  upon  the  general 
educational  policy.     Therefore  work,  whether  done  in  the 


Other  German  States.  243 

common  school,  the  teachers'  seminary,  the  Oymtiasuim,  or 
the  university   of  one   German  state,   is  fully 
recognized  in  all  other  states  throughout    the  apon  general 
empire,  and  children  or  students  may  change  e<iicationai 
their  school  Avithout  loss  of  time.     This  is  one 
of  the  most  important  lessons  which  America  should  learn 
from  Germany  and  apply  throughout  all  of  the  states  of  the 
Union. 


INDEX. 


Aachen,  statistics  of  attendance,  71. 

Administration  of  scliools,  47. 

Advantages  of  townsliip  plan,  68 ;  of 
smaller  normal  schools,  185 ;  of 
trained  teachers,  191. 

Agre,  of  pupils,  common-school,  70  ;  of 
candidates  for  preparatory  school, 
139 ;  of  candidates  for  normal 
school,  143.  181 :  of  children  in  Fort- 
bildunKs  school,  2:lt}  ;  of  children  in 
kindergarten,  it30;  of  children  in 
different  German  states,  240. 

Alciiin,  14. 

Alma  Mater,  normal  school  watches 
over  her  graduates,  155,  186. 

Alteuatein,  first  Minister  of  Culture, 
41 ;  his  statement  of  purpose  of  the 
common  school,  77. 

American  system,  changes  suggested. 
See  Application. 

Apparatus  for  teachers  and  pupils,  87. 

Application,  two  great  needs  of  Amer- 
ican schools,  10;  purpose  of,  46; 
suggested  by  duties  of  Minister  of 
Education,  50 ;  by  system  of  school 
boards,  64;  compulsory  education, 
75;  in  matters  of  private  schools, 
111 ;  of  examinations,  112 ;  of  grad- 
ing, 11*2;  as  to  methods  of  instruc- 
tion, 113;  training  of  teachers,  181; 
appointment  and  support  of  teach- 
ers, 188;  pensions,  200;  kindergar- 
ten, 2-J9 ;  uniformity  of  courses,  242. 

Appointment,  of  teachers.  10 ;  of 
school  officials,  6.3,  66 ;  of  teachers 
to  rest  with  town  board,  68 ;  of  nor- 
mal-school teachers,  144 ;  general 
discussion  of,  169  ;  test  lesson  re- 
quired, 171 ;  of  teachers  in  America, 
188 ;  laws  in  all  Qerman  states  simi- 
lar, 241. 

Army,  small  amount  of  illiteracy,  78. 

Arithmetic,  common-school  course. 
96;  normal-school  course,  151;  g^irls' 
higher  school  course,  214  ;  Fortbil- 
dungs-school  course,  221. 

Astronomy  awakens  a  reverent 
spirit,  121. 


Attendance,  very  regular,  70,  80  (see 
Compulsory  education);  number  of 
children  to  each  teacher,  285. 

Austria,  her  lesson  from  Prussia,  9. 

Authority,  in  direction  of  school  af- 
fairs, 47;  central.  47;  provincial,  52: 
governmental,  55;  district,  58;  of 
Church,  60 ;  oi  teacher,  85. 

Baden,  foremost  Qerman  state  in 
education,  218. 

Bavaria,  school  system  of,  240. 

Berlin,  32;  number  of  districts  in,  59; 
compulsory  law  in,  73;  school  hours 
of,  80;  number  of  pupils  to  a.teach- 
er,  82 ;  schools  for  both  sexes,  86 ; 
disadvantages  of  its  class  arrange- 
ment, 89 ;  bathing  arrangement  in 
school-building,  134 ;  cost  of  schools 
per  inhabitant,  134  ;  proportion  of 
male  and  female  teachers,  165;  sta- 
tistics of  salaries,  174;  superintend- 
ent of,  189  ;  pension  law  illustrated, 
197  ;  popularity  of  public  schools, 
210;  gymnasium  for  girls,  217. 

Bertram,  superintendent,  of  Ber- 
lin, 189 ;  interest  in  Fortbildungs 
schools,  223. 

Beginnings  of  the  Prussian  school 
system,  29. 

Board  of  Regents  of  New  York,  65. 
See  School  boards. 

Boniface  founded  schools  in  eighth 
century,  13. 

Bosse,  present  Mini-ster  of  Elducation, 
42 ;  a  warm  friend  of  the  commoa 
school,  172. 

Brandenburg,  30. 

Breslau,  15. 

Brunswick,  15. 

Bugenhagen,  18. 

Buildings,  school,  description  of,  188 ; 
bathing  arrangement,  133. 

Buraberg,  13. 

Cabinet  officer  of  education   urged 

for  America,  50. 
Calvin,  18. 

845 


546 


Index. 


Candidates,  for  preparatory  schools, 
138;  for  normal  school.  143,  181;  for 
teacher's  position,  155,  171. 

Catechism,  Luther's,  S}7. 

Catholics,  share  in  public  funds,  79  ; 
favor  religious  instruction,  125;  nor- 
mal schools  for,  144. 

Charlemagne,  educational  efforts  of, 
13. 

Christmas,  vacation  at,  82. 

Church,  influence  upon  schools,  19,  29, 
32 ;  opposition  of,  37,  60 ;  a  part  in 
the  du-ection  of  schools,  62;  mem- 
bership of,  80  ;  vacations  deter- 
mined by  Church  days,  82  ;  the 
mother  of  the  schools,  118 ;  con- 
tributes to  support  of  schools,  136; 
teachers  to  be  servants  of,  167;  a 
voice  in  appointment  of  teachers, 
169 ;  pensions  her  pastors,  205. 

City,  school  boards,  59,  62;  normal 
schools,  32 ;  cost  per  pupil,  134 ; 
salaries  of  teachers,  174 ;  higher 
schools,  179. 

Class,  distinctions,  43  ;  rooms,  129. 

Classes,  three  general  in  all  common 
schools,  81,  88 ;  in  normal  schools, 
147;  number  of  pupils  in,  235. 

Coeducation,  not  practised,  86;  sepa- 
rate buildings  for  the  sexes,  128, 130. 
See  Girls,  education  of. 

Cohn,  Prof.,  on  school  hygiene,  129. 

College  training  not  sufficient  to 
make  professional  teachers,  187. 

Comenius.  12,  20,  31,  116,  194. 

Common  schools,  object  of.  77;  classi- 
fication of,  88;  cost  of,  134, 237;  total 
number  of,  242. 

Compulsory  education,  10,  17,  21,  23, 
24,  36,  59,  70,  74, 169,  220,  223,  238,  239. 

Conference,  of  1872,  87 ;  of  1873,  212. 

Confession,  all  schools  of  a  confes- 
sional character,  79 ;  of  normal 
schools,  144 ;  statistics  of  different 
confessions,  2-35. 

Congress  should  establish  a  general 
scnool  fund,  51. 

Conservatism,  in  Germany.  11 ;  in 
Berlin,  89;  in  regard  to  women,  219. 

Corporal  punishment,  85;  not  imrea- 
sonable,  109. 

Country  schools,  management  of,  62. 

County  school  board  recommended, 
66. 

Course  of  study,  minimum  one  for 
all  U.  S.  recommended,  51 ;  general 
discussion  of,  91;  of  preparatory 
schools,  140;  of  normal  schools,  147; 
of  middle  schools,  206;  of  girls' 
schools,  214  ;  of  Fortbildungs 
schools,  221. 

Criticisms,  of  German  conservatism, 
11;  not  to  be  given  prominence,  46, 
111  ;  of  Cliurch  influence,  60  ;  of 
methods  of  instruction,  106,  107; 
by  Fran  Schrader,  107;  of  Berlin 
I'ompulsory  law.  73;  of  the  practice 
of  public  examinations,  83;  of  the 


six-class  arrangement  in  Berlin,  89: 
of  schoolmen  regarding  manner  of 
choice  and  support  of  teachers,  137; 
in  regard  to  education  of  women, 
219:  as  to  number  of  pupils  to  each 
teacher,  236. 

Crusades,  influence  of,  15. 

Culture  necessary  to  stable  govern- 
ment, 31. 

Department,  of  education,  41, 48;  plan 
proposed  for  America,  SO. 

Diesterweg,  10. 

Difference,  between  German  plan  of 
school  organization  and  that  pro- 
posed for  America,  68;  also  for  nor- 
mal schools,  184. 

Discipline,  14,  19,  85;  not  tyrannical, 
109 ;  extends  beyond  the  school- 
grounds,  168. 

District,  a  division  of  the  province,  47; 
provincial  district.  52 ;  inspectors 
of,  58;  school  officials  of,  63,  66;  of 
Potsdam,  176;  statistics  of  attend- 
ance in,  235  ;  all  states  divided  into, 
240. 

Drawing,  common-school  course,  97; 
normal  school  course,  158  ;  impor- 
tance of,  183;  course  in  girls'  higher 
schools,  215;  course  in  Fortbildungs 
schools,  221. 

Duties,  of  Minister  of  Culture,  48;  of 
provincial  school  board,  52;  of  gov- 
ernmental school  board,  55;  of 
district  school  board,  58;  of  local 
school  committee,  63;  of  proposed 
state  board  of  education,  65;  of 
county  board,  66;  of  township  board, 
67;  of  local  trustees,  67. 

Dwelling  for  teacher,  132, 179, 196. 

Early  history,  13. 

Easter,  beginning  of  school  year,  72, 
80;  vacation  at,  82;  annual  exami- 
nations precede,  83. 

Education,  of  women,  14 ;  of  the 
masses,  41;  of  girls,  212;  of  early 
years  belongs  to  tlie  mother,  230.  See 
Schools  of  different  kinds. 

Educational,  awakening,  16;  value  of 
the  kindergarten,  230. 

Eichstfidt,  13. 

Eighth  century,  schools  of,  13. 

"Emile."  34. 

English,  course  in  normal  schools.  154; 
course  in  girls'  higher  schools,  214. 

Erfurt,  13. 

Ernst,  Duke  of  Gotha,  22,  31,  70. 

Examinations,  of  teachers,  56,  65,  66; 
of  pupils,  83 ;  too  many  to  be  avoided, 
112;  for  preparatory  schools,  139;  of 
normal  graduates,  155;  general  dis- 
cussion of.  157;  the  teachers'  final 
examination,  159;  for  higher  schools, 
161;  of  women,  162;  teacher  must 
give  a  test  lesson  before  appoint- 
ment, 171,  190. 

Exercise  books,  importance  of,  106. 


Index. 


247 


Expense,  of  schoolinR,  38;  in  the  mid- 
dle school,  208;  of  education  in  Ger- 
many, 887,  842. 

Experiments,  lead  to  discovery,  J2; 
difficult  to  introduce  in  Gentiany, 
89.    See  Conservatism. 

Explanation,  of  duties  of  Minister  of 
Education,  49;  of  school  pro- 
grammes, 101. 

Factories,  children  cannot  be  em- 
ployed in,  71. 

Falk,  Minister  of  Education,  42,  806. 

Family,  trainlnR  ur^ed  by  Luther,  17; 
riRlits  of  respected,  US,  169;  duties 
of  must  not  be  shirked,  2-30. 

First,  court  school,  13;  attempt  to  se- 
cure the  education  of  a  whole 
people,  14;  state  schools,  15;  uni- 
versal compulsory  law  for  a  whole 
people,  23,  24 ;  school-boolt  for  read- 
uiK,  27;  Kenernl  school  law  for  Prus- 
sia, 31;  normal  school,  31,  165;  as- 
sumption of  state  authority  over 
the  schools,  3i;  Minister  of  Educa- 
tion, 41;  f^ymnasium  for  girls,  217. 

FIchte,  3.}. 

"  Formal  Steps "  of  Herbart.  IIS. 

Fortbildungs  schools,  general  discus- 
sion of,  220;  expense  of.  237. 

France,  her  lesson  from  fJermany,  10; 
compulsory  education  in.  H. 

FrancKe,  10;  institutions  at  Halle,  81; 
teachers'  class.  V>. 

Free  schools,  tendency  towards,  43. 
See  Tuition. 

Frederick  the  Great.  30.  33;  interest  in 
the  common  schools,  77. 

Frederick  William  I.,  great  work  for 
schools.  30. 

Frederick  Willinm  ITI..  appreciation  of 
the  need  of  education  for  all  the 
people,  40. 

Freiburg,  university  open  for  women, 
213. 

French,  course  in  normal  school.  154; 
course  in  girls'  higher  school,  214. 

Froebel,  10;  his  influence,  45,  228,  230. 

Fulda,  early  school  at,  18. 

Fundamental  principles  of  compul- 
sory law,  70. 

General  statistics,  234.    See  Statistics. 

Geography,  common-school  course, 
98;  normal-school  course.  1.^2:  trirls' 
higher  school  course,  219;  teaching 
of  in  American  schools,  121. 

Geometry,  common  school  course,  97; 
normal  school  course,  151. 

German  states,  unity  in  compulsory 
law,  70;  education  of  with  statistics 
discussed,  239. 

Girls,  education  of,  34;  higher  schools 
for,  161,  16C;  general  discussion  of 
girls'  schools,  212.    See  Women. 

Goethe,  34. 

Government,  as  a  division  of  the  prov- 
ince, 47,  55;  its  school  ofQcials,  63. 


Grades,  three  in  all  scbools,  81,  118. 

Grammar,  flrst  German,  19;  common- 
school  course,  95;  course  in  the  nor- 
mal school,  149. 

Gymnasium,  21,  28,  161,  212;  for  girls 
lately  established.  217;  uniformity 
throughout  Germany,  248. 

Gymnastics,  common-school  course, 
99;  in  every  school,  182;  normuU- 
school  course,  Mhi\  for  girls,  166, 215. 

Habit  of  regular  attendance,  71. 

Halle,  Institutions  at,  81. 

Hamburg,  15. 

Heidelberg,  University  of,  open  to 
women,  218. 

Herbart,  10, 12. 46;  his  formal  steps  of 
instruction,  114. 

Hessen,  high  salaries  paid  teachers, 
241. 

History,  of  German  education,  value 
of,  11;  early  history,  13;  common- 
school  course  outlined,  97  ;  impor- 
tance of  teaching  it  in  America,  121; 
course  in  the  normal  school,  150; 
course  in  girls'  higher  schools,  214. 

Holiday.s.    See  Vacation. 

Holy  Scriptures,  translation  of,  16,  18, 
26. 

Home-work,  105;  must  not  be  burden- 
some, 168;  of  girls,  215. 

Hours,  school,  number  for  each  grade, 
81;  for  each  subject,  91;  for  the 
fortbildungs  school,  221.  See  Pro- 
gramme. 

Humboldt,  Wilhelm  von,  interest  in 
education,  40. 

Ickelsamer,  flrst  German  grammar, 

19. 

Ideas  before  words,  19. 

Illness  sole  excuse  for  absence.  71,  78. 

Income,  from  all  sources,  186 ;  of 
women  teachers,  165.  See  Table, 
and  Statistics. 

Individual,  Importance  of,  16;  work  of 
pupils,  105. 

Individuality  of  teachers,  188. 

Industrial.    See  Fortbildungs  schools. 

Influence,  of  cloisters,  13;  of  the  Prus- 
sian school  system,  28. 

Inspectors,  school,  43,  68;  county,  66, 
74,  167. 

Institutions,  at  Halle,  31 ;  for  the  un- 
fortunate, general  discussion  of,  233. 

Instniction,  methods  of,  104;  illus- 
trated where  possible,  108;  is  the  pre- 
rogative of  the  teacher,  113;  in  relig- 
ion for  American  schools.  118. 

Intellectual  and  material  interests  to 
be  divided  in  school  management,  68 

Kant,  34;  opposed  to  utilitarianism.  .39 
Karlsruhe,  first  gymnasium  for  "iris, 

217. 
Kindergarten.  21,  46:  general  discns- 

sion  of,  225;  l>etter  in  America  than 

in  Germany.  289, 


348 


Index. 


Kinds  of  schools,  recommended  by 
Comeniiis,  20;  common,  88;  prepar- 
atory, 138;  normal,  142;  middle,  206; 
Fortbildungs,  220;  kindergarten,  225; 
forthe unfortunate,  232.  See  Schools. 

Language,  common-school  course,  94; 
includes  speaking,  spelling,  writing, 
reading,  and  grammar,  101;  course 
in  the  normal  school,  149;  in  girls' 
higher  schools,  214;  in  Fortbildungs 
schools,  221. 

Law,  compulsory,  general  workings 
of,  72.    .See  Compulsory. 

Leipsic,  15;  gymnasium  for  girls,  217. 

Lessons,  from  German  schools,  the 
three  most  important,  9;  concerning 
school  administration,  65;  compul- 
sory education,  74;  methods  of  in- 
struction. 104;  religious  instruction, 
118;  the  training  of  teachers,  181; 
the  appointment  and  support  of 
teachers,  188:  pensions,  20O5  the  kin- 
dergarten, 229;  uniformity  m  educa- 
tional matters,  242. 

Local,  school  board.  47,  62,  64,  67,  73; 
may  fix  vacations,  82, 168;  expenses, 
135;  rights  to  be  respected,  169;  pub- 
lic school  to  work  in  harmony  with 
the  normal  school,  185;  board  to 
appoint  teachers,  189 ;  taxes  forgirls' 
higher  schools,  216. 

LUbeck,  first  state  schools,  15. 

Lunch  in  schools,  81. 

Luther,  16;  his  great  work  for  the 
schools,  17;  his  pedagogy,  18;  inter- 
est in  schools,  26;  his  catechism,  27; 
favored  compulsory  education,  70, 
121. 

Magdeburg  normal  school,  32. 

Mann,  Horace,  111. 

Manual  training  urged  by  Luther,  17. 

Melancthon,  18. 

Members,  of  school  boards,  provincial, 
52;  governmental,  55.  See  School 
board. 

Men  teachers,  more  needed  in  Amer- 
ica. 191.    See  Statistics. 

Methods,  of  instruction,  IW;  the  Im- 
parting method,  105;  the  one  to  be 
chosen,  114;  for  teachers  of  higher 
schools,  161;  in  Fortbildungs  schools, 
223. 

Michaelmas,  beginning  of  the  second 
half  of  the  school  year,  72,  80;  vaca- 
tion at,  82. 

Middle  schools,  161 ;  general  discussion 
of,  206,  212. 

Ministers  of  Education,  list  of,  42; 
central  authority,  47. 

Ministry,  of  educational  affairs,  41; 
financial  recommendations,  137;  re- 
script concerning  the  kindergarten, 
226. 

Monitors,  102. 

Movements,  Pestalozzlan  and  Herbar- 
tian,  44, 


Music,  course  in  common  school,  99; 
in  normal  school,  154. 

National  fund  should  be  created  for 
educational  purposes,  51. 

Nature,  her  laws  to  De  followed  in 
teaching,  18. 

Needlework,  course  in  common  school, 
99,  166. 

Needs.    See  Application. 

"  Normal  "  course,  91. 

Normal  school,  first,  31;  growth  of, 
35;  control  of.  56;  preparatory,  138; 
general  discussion  of,  142;, course  of 
study,  147;  oversight  of  graduates, 
155,  158;  remarkable  increase  in 
number  of  graduates  employed,  163; 
salaries  in,  179;  general  discussion 
of  American  ncrnial  schools,  181; 
smaller  normal  schools  advocated, 
184;  two  kinds,  elementary  and  col- 
legiate, 186, 201 ;  three-years'  trial  for 
graduates,  189;  practice  schools  in, 
209. 

Oath  of  oflBce,  teachers  to  take  it,  160. 

Objects,  few  to  be  used  in  instruction, 
108;  object  teaching.  116. 

Other  German  states,  general  discus- 
sion of  their  schools,  <;89. 

Parents,  have  a  right  to  choose  place 
of  educating  their  ehilclien,  !}7,  78, 
170,  209;  accountable  for  attendance, 
72,  75;  may  not  visic  the  school,  88; 
public  exliibitions  for,  84;  wish  for 
religious  instruction.  12C;  rights  of, 
188;  must  not  shirk  their  duty,  230. 

Parker,  Col.,  111. 

Pastors,  local  inspectors,  43;  may  give 
religious  instruction,  79,  118;  peda- 
gogical training  of,  156. 

Patron,  62;  may  have  choice  of 
teacher,  170. 

Paulsen,  Prof.,  117. 

Pay  of  teachers,  in  fifteenth  century, 
15:  in  sixteenth  century,  19.  See 
t-  alary. 

Pedagogics,  recognized  as  a  science, 
36;  couree  in  normal  school.  148, 183. 

Pedagogical,  principles  of  Luther,  18; 
training  of  pastors,  60;  of  state  su- 
perintendent,64,68;  principles  stated, 
99;  examinations,  157,  161;  examina- 
tion of  principals,  162;  instructions 
to  teachers,  167. 

Pensions,  175;  general  discussion  of, 
195;  plan  proposed  for  America,  200; 
of  different  German  states,  2J1. 

Permanency,  of  all  school  officials,  61, 
65,  68,  69;  of  teachers,  142;  after  the 
final  examination,  157,  165,  171,  188, 
190,  193. 

Pestalozzi,  10,  34 ;  his  influence,  41 ,  44, 
116. 

Pietists.  31. 

Police  look  after  truants,  73. 

Politics  American  schools  must  be 
(reed  from,  69,  191. 


Index. 


249 


PoMD,  oumber  of  pupils  to  a  teacher, 
sas. 

"  Potato  "  vacation.  82. 
Potsdam,  salariea  of  teachers,  176. 
Practice    school,     in    every    normal 
schnol,  145,  184;  Keoeral  discussion 

of,  aoo 

Preparatory  schools,  purpose  of,  138; 
number  of,  139. 

I'riiiiitive  schools,  13. 

I'rivtite  schools,  under  state  control. 
79.  HO,  111;  general  discussion  of, 
ilO;  of  different  German  states,  243. 

Privileges,  of  all  confessions  alike, 
79. 

Programmes,  of  nchool.s  with  one 
teacher,  100;  of  three  teachers,  103. 

Prof6«slonally  trained  teacliers,  10; 
demanded  by  the  times,  187, 191, 201. 

Promotions,  84,  89. 

Protestant,  separate  schools,  79. 

Piovince,  its  school  administration,  47; 
its  scliool  officials,  Si. 

Prussia,  24,  its  system  selected,  27, 237; 
flrat  K^neral  school  law,  31;  effi- 
ciency of  compulsory  law.Tl;  pension 
law,  196;  per  cent  of  children  edu- 
cated free  of  cost,  217;  Fortbildunffs 
schools,  220;  Kindergarten,  225;  care 
of  unfortunates,  232;  general  school 
census,  237. 

Pupils,  examination  of,  83;  work  at 
home,  105;  dependent  upon  teacher, 
107;  love  for  teacher,  liO;  number 
in  preparatory  schools,  139;  in  com- 
mon schools,  199;  number  to  each 
teacher.  23S;  total  number,  242. 

Purpose,  of  the  common  school,  77. 

Qualifications,  of  teachers,  146,  163; 
of  normal  (graduates,  155;  necessary 
lo  enter  normal  school,  181 ;  state  to 
fix,  188;  recognition  of,  190;  of  all 
states  alike,  241. 

Queen  Louise,  interest  in  girls'  schools, 
212. 

Real  schools,  2&  161,  212. 
Recess,  not  used  for  play,  81. 
Recitations,  full  hour,  80;  are  periods 

of    "instruction,"     104;    Herbarfs 

formal  steps  ot,  114. 
Reformation,  16,  121. 
Reforms,  needed,  69.  See  Application. 
Regents,  board  of,  66. 
Regular  attendance,  a  habit,  71,  73; 

should  be  required  for  every  school 

day.  74     See   Compulsory   attend - 

Regulations.  22,  36,  42. 

Religion,  tolerance  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  36,  38;  belief  not  to  debar 
from  school  privileges,  T9;  course 
marked  out,  92,  117;  value  of,  118; 
importance  of  tor  teachers,  140; 
course  in  normal  school,  148;  in 
girls  higher  school,  214, 

Religious  instruction,  60;  should  be  in- 


troduced in  American  tchooli,  116; 

plan  outlined,  124. 
Removal,  from,  office,  66. 
Rhetoric,  course   in  normal   school, 

149. 
Rostock,  15. 
Rousseau,  34. 

Salaries,  of  teachers,  15,  19,  385;  of 
normal  school  teachers,  144:  general 
discussion  of,  1?2;  better  in  other 
German  states  than  in  Prussia,  176; 
ill  Potsdam  district,  177;  in  America, 
193. 

Saxony,  34;  pay  of  teachers,  178: 
Forthildungs  schools,  220;  school 
age,  240. 

School,  age  in  Prussia,  70.  See  Age; 
buUdlngs,  128:  grounds,  130,  133; 
seats  described,  181 ;  bathJs,  133;  sup- 
port of,  184;  rooms  to  be  clean,  168. 

Schools,  in  cloisters,  13 ;  confessional 
character  of,  75;  visitors  excluded 
from,  83;  classification  of,  88;  relig- 
ion in.  117;  preparatory.  138;  nor- 
mal, 142;  middle,  206;  for  practice, 
144,  209;  for  girls,  212;  Forthildungs, 
220;  kindergarten  not  regarded  as 
school.  22.5;  for  the  unfortunate,  280; 
statistics  concerning,  Zi4;  of  other 
German  states,  239. 

School  board,  local,  47;  provincial,  52; 
of  royal  government,  56;  of  district, 
SS;  in  cities,  59;  for  each  school,  62; 
township,  67;  character  of,  69;  axes 
school  hours,  92. 

School  hours,  38,  80;  for  each  grade, 
81;  for  normal  school,  14^7  See 
Programme. 

Sohool- inspectors,  43;  must  ratify 
schedule  of  work,  167;  have  a  voice 
in  choosing  teachers,  171. 

School  law,  of  1794,  36;  of  1817,  42;  of 
1886,  198. 

School  management,  danger  of  abso- 
lutism, 170. 

School  moneys,  65;  manner  of  raising, 
135;  for  preparatory  schools,  139. 
See  Statistics,  support  of  schools, 
and  table. 

School  regulations,  of  Duke  Ernst  ot 
Gotha,  22;  of  Frederick  the  Great  m 
1763,  36;  of  1872,  42. 

School  support.    See  Support. 

School  systems,  beginnings  of,  20; 
Luther's  influence  upon,  26;  Prus- 
sia's, 27,  30;  separate  for  each  state, 
64;  of  all  German  states,  239. 

Schiller,  d3. 

Schieiermacher,  33. 

Schroder,  l<>au,  criticism  of  German 
methods,  107. 

Sciences,  common -school  course.  98; 
normal-school  course,  151;  in  girls' 
higher  schools,  215;  in  Forthildungs 
schools,  221. 

Seminaries,  for  teachers.  See  Nor- 
mal school. 


250 


Index. 


Singing,  common-school  course,  99; 
normal-school  course,  154. 

Spencer,  18. 

Stettin,  15;  first  normal  school,  31. 

State,  as  a  whole,  47;  fixes  minimum 
course  of  study,  78;  controls  the 
preparation  of  teachers,  139;  con- 
trols normal  schools,  14).';  has  a 
voice  In  appointment  of  teachers, 
170;  assists  in  their  support,  188: 
pays  the  pensions,  203;  assists  girls 
higher  schools,  215;  does  not  assist 
the  kindergarten,  835;  its  part  m  the 
expense,  237. 

State  board  of  education,  proposed 
for  America,".64;  to  elect  state  super- 
intendent, 65. 

Statistics,  of  attendance  m  Aachen, 
71;  of  illiteracy  in  the  army,  78;  of 
expense,  134,  136;  of  preparatory 
schools,  135;  of  normal  schools,  142; 
of  teachers  in  Prussia,  163;  of  per- 
manency in  office,  165;  of  increase 
m  women  teachers,  166;  of  salaries 
m  Prussia,  172;  in  cities,  174;  in  Ber- 
im,  175;  in  Potsdam  district,  177;  of 
women,  178;  of  higher  schools,  179; 
of  teachers'  training,  181 ;  as  to  pen- 
sions, 196;  as  to  mcreaseof  teachers, 
199 ;  as  to  private  and  public  schools; 
in  Berlin,  210;  of  support  of  girls' 
higher  schools,  216;  of  unfortunates, 
2^;  general  statistics  of  schools, 
234;  summary  of  all  German  states, 
248. 

Stoy,  Prof.,  115, 117;  ideas  of  a  prac- 
tice school,  145. 

Sturm,  18. 

Summary,  of  school  authorities,  63; 
of  cost,  134. 136;  of  teachers'  exam- 
inations, 157;  of  instructions  to 
teachers,  167;  of  manner  of  choosing 
teacher,  171;  of  reasons  for  perma- 
nency in  teacher's  office,  191;  for 
pensions  m  Germany,  195;  in  Amer- 
ica, 204;  of  recommendations  of  the 
conference  of  1873,  212;  of  object  of 
Fortbildungs  schools,  220;  of  author- 
ities regarding  the  Isindergarten, 
227;  of  attendance,  235;  of  points  of 
agreement  in  all  German  states,  239. 

Summer  school,  60;  tor  theological 
students,  136. 

Sunday  school,  inefficiency  of,  122. 

Superintendent,  state,  to  be  chairman 
of  state  board  of  education,  64;  city, 
189;  salaries  of,  193;  pension  of,  202. 

Support,  of  schools,  17,  30,  32,  36,  43, 
185,  188;  to  be  withneld  on  non-en- 
forcement of  compulsory  laws,  V4; 
of  girls'  higher  schools,  216. 

Sympathy,  between  teachers  and 
pupils,  85. 

System,  proposed  for  America,  65, 188. 
See  Apphcation. 

Table,  of  cost  of  schools  per  person  m 
Prussia,  134;  of  sources  of  income  m 


Prussia,  136;  of  salaries  of  normal- 
school  teachers,  144,  179;  of  salaries 
of  common-school  teachers,  173;  of 
teachers  in  cities,  174;  in  Berlin,  175: 
in  the  Potsdam  district,  177;  of 
women,  178;  in  higher  schools,  179; 
of  teachers  in  the  middle  schools, 
208;  of  subjects  in  the  Fortbildungs 
school,  222;  of  institutions  for  the 
unfortunate,  233;  of  general  statis- 
tics, 234. 

Teachers,  early,  15,  23,  35;  respect 
shown,  17, 18,  36;  preparation  of,  30; 
pastor's assi"tants,  30, 168;  first  semi- 
nary for,  31;  officers  of  the  state,  37; 
to  be  in  school  boards,  54,  59,  62,  69; 
dismissal  of,  49;  examination  of,  56, 
65,  lo7,  171;  independence  of,  83;  to 
judge  of  promotions,  84;  may  use 
corporal  punishment,  85,  109;  use 
the  imparting  method,  106;  use  no 
textbook  in  class,  107;  not  tyranni- 
cal, 109;  duty  to  instruct,  113;  free 
dwelling  tor,  132;  salaries  of,  135i, 
1?2;  how  they  should  be  supported, 
137;  preparatory  schools  for,  138; 
statistics  of  normal  schools,  142;  per- 
manency of,  142,  189;  qualifications 
of,  146,  155,  201 ;  wish  for  removal  of 
pastors  as  local  inspectors,  156; 
oath  of  office  for,  160;  of  higher 
schools,  161;  general  discussion  of, 
103;  general  instructions  to,  167;  ap- 
pointment of,  169;  must  give  a  test 
lesson  before  appoiniment,  171  ; 
faithfulness  of,  180,  198;  individu- 
ality of,  182;  should  be  trained,  187; 
should  be  appointed  indefinitely  in 
America,  189;  more  men  needed  in 
American  schools,  191;  scale  of  sal- 
aries suggested,  193;  pensions  for, 
196,  200;  should  be  two  grades  of, 
201;  of  private  schools,  210;  of  girls' 
higher  schools,  217;  of  the  kinder- 
garten, 829;  number  of  pupils  to, 
235;  laws  concerning  alike  for  all 
German  states,  241;  total  number  of 
m  Germany,  242. 

Text-books,  selection  of,  56,  66,  167; 
not  used  in  class,  107;  pupils  do  not 
have  them  in  many  subjects,  96. 

Thirty  Years'  War,  effect  upon  educa- 
tion, 23,  29. 

Ibwnship,  its  adoption  recommended, 
67. 

Iralnmg  schools.  See  Practice  schools. 

Trustees,  for  each  school,  02;  cannot 
mterfere  with  the  teacher,  63. 

Tuition  fees,  tendency  to  abolish,  43, 
134;  in  normal  schools,  144;  in  mid- 
dle schools.  208 ;  >n  girls'  higher 
schools,  ^16. 

Unfortunates.    See  Institutions  tor. 

Uniformity  of  collegeentrance  re- 
quiremeals  in  America,  51 ;  ot  test- 
books,  66;  of  educational  require- 
ments, BO;  of  methods,  104 


Index, 


251 


Unity,  in  German  education,  27. 
University,  21,  'J8;  not  generally  open 

for  women,  Ho,  HI;   expenaes  of, 

287. 

Vacations,  CU.  38,  72;  Wednesday  and 
tiaturday  afternoons  free,  80;  periods 
of  marked  uut,  Si,  84, 168;  of  normal 
scbools,  148. 

Ventilatioo,  during  reoeas,  81;  gener- 
ally bad.  130. 

Visitors  not  allowed,  83, 

Volks8chiile,  21;  development  of,  26; 
uiidt-r  Frederick  the  Great,  38;  pur- 
pose of,  77. 

Voltaire,  38. 


Weimar,  21,  70. 

Widows,  pension  for,  liW. 

Whitsuntide,  vacation  at,  82. 

William  I.,  77. 

William  U.,  144. 

Women,  examination  of,  162;  propor- 
tion of  ill  lieriiii,  105;  increase  of, 
166;  salaries  of.  174,  177,  178;  pffl- 
cieiiey  of,  192;  pt- nsioiiK  for.  2«I2,  2«i8; 
education  of.  212;  education  of  in 
Baden,  217;  total  number  employed 
in  Germany,  242. 

WUrtemberK,  22,  23,  70. 

Wilrzburg,  13. 

Zwingll,  18. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


OCT  9     1958     Subject  to  fine  if 

EDUCATION 

NOV  1 9  1971 
RECEIVED 


NOV  1  2  t959 
JAN  5     t960 
JUN  1  6  1960 


JUN  3     1961 
MAR  1  2  1966 

DEC  7 


lIlOT  RETURNED  TO 

LIBRARY 


Die'cg 


EDU.IPSVCH. 


FEB  1  7  1980 

RECEIVED 

FEB  24 '80-1  PR 

ED/PSYCH  LIB. 
[RECEIVED 

APR  2r83-2^ivi 


ED./  PSYCH. 
UBRARY 


ED/PSYCH  LIB. 

Form  L9-32m-8,*57(,C8680s4)444 


'^ 


m^^ 


UCLA-ED/PSYCH  Ubf.ry 

LA  721  S55 


L  005  634  370  0 


iif-crw,T>^o^or^^ 

...... 

1        iiil    ill    ill    ll 

III  III 

II  1  1  !!: 

1    111   II 

A     000  962  941 

Education 
Library 

LA 

721 
S5^ 

w 

\ BRANCH, 

•  CALIFORNIA 

^RY, 

ES.  CALIF. 

■'•■ ■.■■■•;■;::■■•-•■■••;*;•:••«;•••;—.-.-•♦(. ^. 

I  i&ima^s^^^^Kt^R ' 

